國號

元朝的漢文國號「大元」出自《易經·乾卦》「大哉乾元，萬物資始，乃統天」，意為「蓬勃盛大的乾元之氣，是萬物所賴以創始化生的動力資源，統貫于天道運行之中」。1271年12月18日，忽必烈汗公布《建國號詔》，宣布國號為大元。元朝是中國曆史上第一個把「大」字加于正式國號之中的統一王朝，除此前僅統治了華北地區的遼金兩國外，之前各朝的「大」字均為尊稱。

而關於元朝的蒙古文國號，考古發現有多種稱呼：

• 正式稱呼為「大元的大蒙古國」（ ），此名稱見於1362年的《追封西寧王忻都碑》。其中「Dai Ön」系漢語「大元」的蒙古語音譯，「Yeqe」是蒙古語「大」的意思，「Mongɣul」是「蒙古」的意思，「Ulus」是「國家」的意思。

• 「被稱為大元的大蒙古國」（），其中「qemeqü」是一個書面語聯動詞，是「說」、「據說」的意思。此名稱見於1338年的《達魯花赤竹溫台碑》。

• 「大元國」，蒙古語寫作「」（八思巴文：，鮑培轉寫：，西里爾：）或者「」（鮑培轉寫：，西里爾：）。其中「Dai Ön」是漢語「大元」一詞的在當時蒙古語中的音譯。但現今中、蒙兩國學者多使用與現代漢語「元」字發音更相近的「」（）一詞來替換原有的「」（），將元朝稱為「」（），或者「」（）。

歷史

元朝歷史通常可以分為兩個到三個階段：

• 1206年元太祖鐵木真統一蒙古，立國位於漠北的蒙古草原，定國號為「大蒙古國」；到1271年元世祖忽必烈定都元大都，將國號改為大元之際，共六十五年，稱為大蒙古國時期，又稱蒙古帝國；

• 元世祖忽必烈定都元大都，1271年將國號改為大元後，直到1368年元惠宗出亡為止，共九十七年，才是嚴格意義上的元朝歷史；

• 元惠宗出亡後依舊以大元為國號，至1402年鬼力赤殺順天帝坤帖木兒去國號為止（一說1388年天元帝脫古思帖木兒被也速迭爾殺害後去國號），稱為北元時期。

• 去國號後稱蒙古，明廷稱韃靼。

蒙古崛起

遼朝時期，蒙古草原上的諸部歸于遼朝統轄。金滅遼後，草原各部歸屬不一，汪古部等成為金朝的臣屬，而乞顏部的合不勒汗乘金軍大舉南下而無暇北顧之機，建立了早期的蒙古國家，即蒙兀國，此後一直侵襲金朝的邊境。合不勒汗死後，俺巴孩汗成為新的大汗。由于塔塔兒人的出賣，俺巴孩汗被金朝皇帝金熙宗釘在木驢上致死，此事件埋下了蒙古對金朝複仇的種子。

在金章宗死後，13世紀初，金朝在衛紹王完顏永濟的統治下走向衰落，蒙古乞顏部鐵木真開始了統一蒙古草原的征程。先後在克烈部首領王罕以及他的安達扎答蘭部首領札木合的軍事援助下，打敗了蔑兒乞人，奪回了被蔑兒乞人奪取的眾多部眾（以及其妻孛兒帖），力量逐漸壯大。

1189年，在經過激烈的爭奪之後，鐵木真被乞顏貴族推舉為部落的可汗。然而，鐵木真部族的逐漸強大，危及了援助他的札木合在蒙古草原上的地位，于是札木合聯合泰赤烏等部，合兵三萬餘人，向鐵木真發起進攻。面對來勢洶洶的札木合，鐵木真將自己的部眾3萬人組成十三翼。在戰鬥中鐵木真暫時戰敗，為保存實力退至斡難河的哲列捏山峽，扼險而守。史稱「十三翼之戰」。札木合雖然取得戰役的勝利，但札木合的暴虐受到了其所屬部落首領的不滿，而鐵木真對部眾進行籠絡，故部眾歸心于鐵木真。于是畏答兒、赤老溫、朮赤台、晃豁壇等族人紛紛來附。此後，鐵木真力量進一步壯大。

1196年，從屬于金朝的蒙古部族塔塔兒部叛金，完顏永濟派丞相完顏襄率軍征討。鐵木真聯合克烈部，以「為父親報仇」的名義，在斡里匝河擊潰了塔塔兒部，使塔塔兒一蹶不振。戰後，金朝授鐵木真糺軍統領之職，使他可以用金朝屬官名義號令蒙古部眾。1200年，鐵木真與王汗會于薩里川（今蒙古國克魯倫河上游之西），大敗泰赤烏與蔑兒乞的聯軍，首領塔里忽台等被殺。

1201年，鐵木真又在呼倫貝爾海剌爾河支流帖尼河之野，擊敗以札木合為首的塔塔兒、弘吉剌、合答斤等十一部聯軍，史稱「帖尼河之戰」。宋嘉泰二年，鐵木真與王汗聯軍又在闊亦田擊敗了札木合同乃蠻、泰赤烏、塔塔兒、蔑兒乞等聯軍，取得了闊亦田之戰的勝利。接著招降了呼倫貝爾一帶的弘吉剌惕等部。至此，蒙古高原都被鐵木真控制了。最後平定蒙古高原，統一蒙古各部，1206年春，蒙古貴族在斡難河（今鄂嫩河）源頭召開庫里爾台大會，蒙古部鐵木真得到成吉思汗稱號，建國大蒙古國（即蒙古帝國），後被尊稱元太祖。

伐金與擴張

金朝與蒙古為世仇，成吉思汗有意伐金復仇，然而西南的西夏與金朝聯盟，為了避免被西夏牽制，先後三次率軍（1205年、1207年與1209年—1210年）進攻之，迫使西夏夏襄宗稱臣1210年成吉思汗與金斷交，隔年發動蒙金戰爭，於野狐嶺戰役大破四十萬金軍，隨後攻入華北地區並四處屠殺。

1214年蒙軍包圍金朝首都中都（今北京市），金宣宗被迫求和稱臣，並在蒙古退兵後遷都北宋故都汴京。隔年5月31日蒙軍南下攻佔金中都，並且獲得名相耶律楚材，這對於鞏固華北地區有很大的幫助。

1217年，成吉思汗為了西征花剌子模，命木華黎統領漢地，封為「太師國王」，命他持續進攻金朝。木華黎為了鞏度漢地，收降地方自衛勢力如真定史天澤、滿城張柔、東平嚴實與濟南張宏，史稱漢族四大世侯，後來他們也扶佐忽必烈建立元朝。木華黎除了對金朝的戰爭讓金朝疆域萎縮剩河南與關中地區之外，並於1231年派兵進攻高麗，使高麗退到江華島以南（即今日南韓）。

西域方面，為了建立通往西方的道路，早在1209年—1210年就讓新疆東部的畏兀兒與伊犁河谷的哈剌魯先後歸順。當金朝遷都並將要滅亡之際，中亞新興大國花剌子模在沙阿摩訶末時期崛起，該國訛答剌地方大臣海兒汗亦納勒術前後兩次屠殺蒙古商隊並侮辱蒙古使臣，成吉思汗遂決心發動第一次西征。

1218年蒙將哲別殺死占領西遼並稱遼帝的屈出律，攻占塔里木地區，史稱蒙古攻西遼之戰。隔年六月，成吉思汗親率蒙古主力軍十萬西征花剌子模。由於沙阿摩訶末抵擋不了蒙軍攻勢，畏懼而逃，在屠殺掉花剌子模的40個城鎮之後，花剌子模也於1221年亡國。成吉思汗命速不臺和哲別追殺摩訶末，摩訶末最後死於裡海。其子札蘭丁於八魯灣之戰英勇抗敵，最後南逃印度，並於1224年復國於大不里士（今伊朗西北部）。

1230年，札蘭丁被蒙古將軍綽兒馬罕攻滅。速不臺和哲別最後于1222年從撒馬爾罕出發經過今伊朗高原北部，進攻殺掠高加索三國（亞美尼亞王國、格魯吉亞、阿塞拜疆）之後，並越太和嶺（今高加索山脈），抵達欽察（位於俄南），期間攻占不少國家。於1223年的迦勒迦河之戰（今烏克蘭日丹諾夫市北）更是擊潰基輔羅斯諸國與欽察忽炭汗的聯軍，並向西進軍到今烏克蘭西部的德涅斯特河，折轉圍攻基輔後東返，並于1223年9月攻擊伏爾加河中上游的河谷伏爾加保加利亞，最後渡過伏爾加河東返中亞。成吉思汗將新拓展的疆土分封給長子朮赤、次子察合台和三子窩闊台，四子拖雷領有蒙古本土，三子窩闊台成為大汗繼承人。1225年蒙古回師後，因西夏不配合西征，成吉思汗又率歸師滅西夏。1227年，成吉思汗病逝，由幼子拖雷監國。

汗系轉移

拖雷監國兩年後於1229年舉辦庫里爾台大會，窩闊台被推舉為蒙古大汗，後尊稱元太宗。1231年窩闊台汗率軍南征金朝，並命四弟拖雷自漢中借宋道沿漢水攻打汴京，隔年拖雷在河南三峰山之戰擊潰金軍。1234年蒙宋聯軍聯合攻破蔡州，金哀宗自殺，金朝亡。南宋雖然發起端平入洛以收復河南地，但是華北地區最後全由蒙古占領。

1235年，窩闊台汗定都哈拉和林（今烏蘭巴托西南）後，藉此率軍南征南宋以報復之，掠奪兩淮地區後北返。蒙古為了防止華北的漢人世侯叛變，派探馬赤軍（振戍軍）進駐漢地；進行兩次人口調查，將半數漢人分封給蒙古功臣。由於需要人才治理國家，窩闊台汗接受耶律楚材的建議，於1238年命朮忽德和劉中舉辦科舉，史稱戊戌選試。這次考試錄取東平楊奐等名士，為統治華北帶來不少人才，但後來以「當世或以為非便，事複中止」。

西線方面，1235年窩闊台汗命朮赤次子拔都、貴由與蒙哥、速不台等第二代蒙古王子發起蒙古第二次西征，史稱拔都西征，總指揮為拔都與速不台。1236年至1242年間攻占欽察草原、基輔羅斯等各公國並進犯匈牙利、摩爾達維亞、波蘭、立陶宛大公國、摩拉維亞原南斯拉夫地區、保加利亞第二帝國、拉什卡等中東歐各國。1241年11月窩闊台汗去世，由皇后乃馬真脫列哥那監國，1246年3月的庫里爾台大會由其子貴由即位，後追尊稱元定宗。1247年吐蕃諸部歸附大蒙古，史稱涼州會盟。1248年8月貴由汗在遠征拔都的途中去世，皇后斡兀立海迷失立孫子失烈門並監國。然而在1251年7月的大會，因為拔都與兀良哈台大力支持拖雷系的蒙哥，使得窩闊台系的失烈失去汗位。蒙哥繼承汗位，後尊稱元憲宗。

1252年蒙哥即位後推行中央集權化，在漢地、中亞與伊朗等直轄地設置行中書省，分遣拖雷系諸王分守各地，以其弟忽必烈總領漠南漢地大總督以管理漢地。忽必烈統治漢地期間任用了大批漢族幕僚和儒士，鞏固了華北地區，並且與兀良合台迂迴南滅大理，擴大南宋防線缺口。1258年高麗崔氏政權跨台，高麗成為藩屬國。同年蒙哥汗宣布兵分三路南征南宋，蒙哥汗率軍攻打四川合州（今重慶）、忽必烈攻打湖北鄂州（今武昌）、兀良合台由雲南晏當（今雲南麗江北部）直攻經過安南，進攻宋廣南西路而直攻荊湖南路，並兵臨潭州（今長沙），三軍意圖在華中會合，再大舉下長江圍攻臨安。隔年蒙哥汗在合州的釣魚城之戰戰死，忽必烈等人停止南征，北返奪位。西線方面，蒙哥汗派其弟旭烈兀西征西亞，史稱蒙古第三次西征，1256年旭烈兀攻滅伊斯蘭教的暗殺組織木剌夷。1258年西征軍攻佔阿拔斯王朝最後領地美索不達米亞的巴格達。1260年佔領大馬士革和阿勒頗。然而當旭烈兀得知蒙哥於南征南宋時去世的消息後，立即率大軍回師爭位。留下的蒙軍也在今以色列加利利的阿音札魯特戰役敗於埃及馬木留克王朝，第三次西征結束。

大哉乾元

蒙哥汗去世後，身在戰事的忽必烈立即與南宋和談，返回華北與留守蒙古本土的七弟阿里不哥爭奪汗位。1260年5月5日忽必烈在部分宗王和蒙漢大臣的擁立下於開平（即上都，今內蒙古多倫縣北石別蘇木）自立為蒙古大汗，年號中統。忽必烈登基後不久，阿里不哥在蒙古帝國首都哈拉和林召開庫里爾台大會，被阿速台等宗王和大臣選立蒙古大汗，並獲得欽察、察合台與窩闊台汗國的支持。爭奪汗位戰爭最後於1264年8月21日由阿里不哥兵敗投降，忽必烈穩固其位。

忽必烈汗為了成為中國皇帝而推行漢法，主要內容有改元建號，1267年忽必烈汗遷都中都（今北京市），並命劉秉忠興建中都城。1272年改中都為大都（又稱汗八里），將上都作為陪都。1271年12月18日，忽必烈汗公布《建國號詔》，採納漢人儒士劉秉忠的建議，取《易經》中「乾元」之意，宣佈新王朝為繼承歷代中原王朝的中華正統王朝，將國號由大蒙古國改為大元，建立元朝，即元世祖；1260年設立中書省，1263年設立樞密院，1268年設立御史台等等國家機構；設置大司農司並且提倡農業；尊孔崇儒並大力發展儒學等推行漢法的政策。然而為了保留原蒙古制度，最後形成蒙漢兩元政治。元世祖雖然於爭奪汗位戰爭獲得蒙古大汗的汗位，並且最後成為中國皇帝，但由於汗位取得不合法與崇尚漢法，使得蒙古宗室不承認忽必烈的汗位，四大汗國有三國不奉忽必烈的命令，蒙古帝國完全解體。最後引發窩闊台系的海都出兵爭奪汗位，造成漠北地區動盪不安，史稱海都之亂。

早在元世祖在與阿里不哥作戰與整頓國內之際，因為無暇對付南宋，於是派郝經對南宋提出議和。當時南宋大權由謊稱擊退蒙古軍的賈似道掌握，然而賈似道由於畏懼謊言被擊破幽禁郝經。南宋並於1262年拉攏山東漢人世侯李璮，發起李璮叛亂。元軍平定叛亂後，元世祖斷然廢止漢人世侯，以蒙古人直接管理地方事務，並且準備南征南宋。1268年元世祖發起宋元戰爭，首先派劉整與阿朮率軍攻打襄陽府，史稱襄樊之戰。1274年元軍攻下襄陽，宋將呂文煥投降，隨後中書丞相史天澤和樞密院樞密使伯顏率軍順漢水南下長江，目標建康。1275年降將呂文煥率元水陸聯軍於蕪湖擊潰賈似道的南宋水軍，史稱丁家洲之戰。隔年元軍攻陷臨安（今浙江杭州），謝太后與宋恭帝投降元軍。然而陸秀夫等人擁立7歲的宋端宗在福州即位，文天祥、張世傑與陳宜中等大臣持續在江西、福建與廣東等地抗元。元軍陸續攻下華南各地，1278年南宋朝廷退至廣東崖山。隔年3月，張弘範在崖門海戰攻滅南宋海軍，陸秀夫帶著8歲的小皇帝趙昺投海而死，南宋滅亡。元朝統一中國地區，結束自唐朝安史之亂以來520多年的分裂局面。

在此前後，元朝曾要求周邊一些國家或地區（包括日本、安南、占城、緬甸、爪哇）臣服，加入元朝的朝貢關係，但遭到拒絕，元世祖於是出兵攻打這些國家，其中以入侵日本的元日戰爭最為著名，因為范文虎指揮不當與颱風來襲而失敗。由於元朝廷需要賞賜大量財寶予宗室貴族，加上開支繁重，財政日漸緊張，朝臣為了財政問題發生爭執，分裂成以許衡等漢人與漢化蒙古人為首的儒臣派與以阿合馬、盧世榮與桑哥等色目人與漢人為首的理財派。儒臣派認為元廷應該節省經費、減免稅收。理財派認為南人藏有大量財物，應沒收以解決朝廷的財政問題。由於元世祖信任阿合馬，設立尚書省解決財政問題。而儒臣則以受漢化更深的太子真金為核心與阿合馬抗衡。最後阿合馬被刺殺，太子真金也因為得病而死。然而元世祖不信任儒臣派，依舊任用理財派官員來解決財政問題，導致財政惡化。

平定西北

1294年元世祖駕崩後，雖然太子真金早死，但是元世祖曾賜真金的三子鐵穆爾「皇太子寶」並且讓他鎮守和林。隨後鐵穆爾在庫里爾台大會中獲得重臣伯顏與玉昔帖木兒等支持，打敗真金的長子甘麻剌與次子答剌麻八剌等繼位，即元成宗。元成宗主要恪守元世祖時期的成憲，任用其侄海山（答剌麻八剌之子）鎮守和林以平定西北海都之亂，並且下令停止征討日本與安南。在內政方面專力整頓國內政治，減免江南部分賦稅。然而，由於元成宗過度賞賜，入不敷出，使國庫資財匱乏。1307年正月，元成宗駕崩，由於太子德壽早逝，左丞相阿忽台擁護皇后卜魯罕與信奉伊斯蘭教的安西王阿難答監國，並有意讓阿難答稱帝。海山之弟愛育黎拔力八達與右丞相哈剌哈孫發動大都政變。他們斬殺阿忽台，控制大都局勢，擁護率軍南下的海山稱帝，即元武宗。皇后與阿難答被元武宗斬殺，其回回部下退入西域吐魯番地區。

元武宗因愛育黎拔力八達有功，冊封他為皇太弟（即未來的元仁宗），相約武宗系與仁宗系交替稱帝，即武仁之約。元武宗時期，加封孔子為「大成至聖文宣王」，並給予孔子的家族與弟子一些稱號。為了解決元成宗時期的財政危機，元武宗設置常平倉以平抑物價，下令印製至大銀鈔，然而反而使銀鈔嚴重貶值。此外他將中書省宣敕與用人權劃歸給尚書省。1311年元武宗因沉耽淫樂、酗酒過度而逝，由皇太弟愛育黎拔力八達繼位，是為元仁宗，這次是元朝首次和平繼承帝位。

西北地區方面，早在元世祖時期，由於他的大汗之位不受四大汗國的承認，使得當時窩闊臺汗海都有意奪回蒙古汗位。海都統轄葉密立（今新疆額敏東南）一帶且與欽察汗國友好。元世祖為了避免在南征南宋時被海都背刺，遂扶持八剌獲得察合台汗位以牽制海都。然而在1268年，海都、八剌和欽察汗忙哥帖木兒以元世祖過度漢化、違背祖宗成法為由，在塔拉斯河招開庫里爾台大會結盟反元。他們以海都為盟主，共同瓜分中亞行省，聯合對抗元朝與伊兒汗國，史稱海都之亂。元世祖派伯顏北上平亂，海都與新任察合台汗篤哇採用游擊戰的方式迴避決戰。1287年海都聯軍夥同鎮守遼東的東道諸王乃顏與哈丹襲擊和林（今蒙古國哈爾和林），元世祖親率大軍擊敗之，派伯顏、玉昔帖木兒與李庭平定東北乃顏，主持西北軍事。1289年海都再犯和林，最後其勢力被驅出阿爾泰山以西。而哈丹於遼東高麗一帶游擊，至1292年敗亡。

元成宗即位後，任命其侄海山（後繼位為元武宗）總領漠北諸軍。1301年海都聯軍被海山和晉王甘麻剌擊潰，史稱鐵堅古山之役。海都於戰後去世，其子察八兒繼位，窩闊台汗國被篤哇掌控。1303年由於篤哇被欽察汗脫脫蒙哥擊潰，就與察八兒共同派使者向元廷請和，脫脫蒙哥也向元廷請和，而伊兒汗本來就支持元廷，至此四大汗國皆承認元朝的宗主地位，雙方廣設驛路，解除封禁。不久之後，窩闊臺汗國被察合台汗篤哇與元朝元武宗先後攻滅而亡，察八兒投降元朝。

漢化與政變

元仁宗力圖改變元武宗時造成的財政枯竭、政制混亂的局面，他推行「以儒治國」政策，並且減裁冗員、加強中央集權以整頓朝政。他曾令王約將《大學衍義》譯為蒙文，賜臣下說「治天下，此一書足矣。」並將《貞觀政要》和《資治通鑒》等書摘譯為蒙文，令蒙古人與色目人誦習。1312年元仁宗將其儒師王約特拜集賢大學士並將王約「興科舉」的建議「著為令甲」，至此恢復科舉制度。本次科舉以程朱理學為考試的內容，史稱延祐復科，最後錄取護都答兒、張起岩等56人為進士。他還倚重漢人文臣，處死蒙丞相脫虎脫等，排除朝中異己。財政方面，仁宗取消武宗的經濟措施，並且於1314年在江浙、江西、河南等地查清地方田產，史稱延祐經理。任用床兀兒統軍，擊敗察合台汗王也先不花以平定西北地區。然而元仁宗未能制止太后答己幹預朝政，也無力制裁備受太后重用的重臣鐵木迭兒貪贓枉法。在繼承問題方面，元仁宗以王約輔助皇太子碩德八剌，並且聽從鐵木迭兒的建議，廢除武仁之約。他將元武宗長子周王和世琜外放鎮守雲南、次子圖帖睦爾放逐海南島。同年冬天，元武宗舊臣皆感憤怒而擁護和世琜叛變，最後敗走漠北，依附察合台汗國。1320年元仁宗駕崩後，皇太子碩德八剌即位為元英宗。

元英宗繼續實行元仁宗的以儒治國、加強中央集權和官僚體制的政策，並于1323年下令編成並頒布元朝正式法典——《大元通制》，共2539條，他還下令拔除權臣鐵木迭兒在朝廷的勢力。然而支持鐵木迭兒的蒙古與色目保守派厭惡英宗的新政，有意發動政變。1323年鐵木迭兒的義子鐵失趁英宗去上都避暑之際，在上都以南15公里的南坡地刺殺英宗及宰相拜住等人，史稱南坡之變，仁宗系自此未能再奪得皇位。晉王甘麻剌的長子，鎮守和林的也孫鐵木兒率兵南下，殺掉行刺元英宗的叛臣並稱帝，即元泰定帝。

泰定帝召回被放逐到海南島的武宗系圖帖睦爾為懷王。泰定帝於1328年七月崩於上都，丞相倒剌沙擁立七歲的阿速吉八為帝，是為元天順帝。而鎮守大都的燕帖木兒與伯顏擁立周王和世琜於漠北、懷王圖帖睦爾於江陵，同年圖帖睦爾先至大都繼位，是為元文宗。燕帖木兒率軍攻入上都，天順帝不知所終。隔年和世琜於漠北和林稱帝，即元明宗。元文宗放棄帝位，派燕帖木兒迎元明宗繼位，並且被立為皇太子。然而燕帖木兒毒死元明宗，元文宗復位，改元天曆，史稱天曆之變。

元文宗時期大興文治，1329年設立了奎章閣學士院，掌進講經史之書，考察歷代治亂。又令所有勛貴大臣的子孫都要到奎章閣學習。於奎章閣下設藝文監，專門負責將儒家典籍譯成蒙古文字，以及校勘。同年下令編纂《元經世大典》，兩年後修成，為元朝一部重要的記述典章制度的巨著。然而丞相燕帖木兒自恃有功，玩弄朝廷，導致朝政更加腐敗。1333年元文宗去世後，為洗刷毒死元明宗的罪行，遺詔立年僅七歲的明宗次子懿璘質班為帝，是為元寧宗。但元寧宗僅在位不到兩個月即去世，不久後燕帖木兒也去世。元明宗的長子妥懽貼睦爾被文宗皇后卜答失里從靜江（廣西桂林）召回並立為帝，是為元惠宗，又稱元順帝。元朝在二十六年內，換了八個皇帝。

惠宗失國

元惠宗（元順帝）在位之初，1335年燕帖木兒的兒子唐其勢陰謀推翻，另立元文宗義子答剌海。幸右丞相伯顏粉碎叛亂，但屬於保守派的他掌握朝政，權力盛大。他禁止漢人參政並取消科舉，這些都與元惠宗發生衝突。1340年元惠宗在伯顏之侄脫脫的幫助下，終于廢黜伯顏。脫脫為相與元惠宗親政前期時，元廷推行一系列改革措施如頒行《至正條格》法規，使得革新政治，社會矛盾緩和，史稱至正新政。1343年元惠宗下令修撰《遼史》、《金史》、《宋史》三史，由右丞相脫脫（後改由阿魯圖）主持，兩年後修成。然而元惠宗後期怠於政事，以至於在1350年發生天災人禍後引來民變。

元朝後期，特別是1340年代中後期至1350年代期間，乾旱、瘟疫 ( 歐洲黑死病傳至中國 ) 與水災時常發生，且自北宋末年杜充挖開黃河大堤以致奪淮入海後，黃河地區水患尤其嚴重。與此同時，元廷財政體系崩潰，通貨膨脹嚴重，不斷收取各種賦稅，使百姓的生活更加艱苦，使得白蓮教逐漸流行，並成為對抗元廷的勢力。早在1325年就發生過河南趙醜廝、郭菩薩領導的武裝起事。1338年江西袁州（今江西宜春）彭和尚、周子旺等白蓮教徒起義失敗，彭和尚逃至淮西。1350年元廷下令變更鈔法，鑄造「至正通寶」錢，並大量發行新「中統元寶交鈔」，導致物價迅速上漲。隔年元惠宗派賈魯治黃河，欲歸故道，動用民伕十五萬，士兵二萬。而官吏乘機敲詐勒索，造成不滿。白蓮教首領韓山童、劉福通等人決定在5月率教眾起事，但事洩，韓山童被捕殺。劉福通再立韓山童之子韓林兒殺出重圍，指韓山童為宋徽宗八世孫，打出「複宋」旗號，以紅巾為標誌。其後郭子興於安徽濠州起事，芝麻李等人占領徐州，此為東系紅巾軍。西系紅巾軍方面，彭瑩玉、鄒普勝與徐壽輝在湖北蘄州起事，國號天完。紅巾軍勢力遍佈河南江北、江南、兩湖與四川等地，還有非紅巾軍的張士誠等部的起事，民變揭開元朝滅亡的序幕。於元末民變期間，士人多不屑參加叛軍，叛軍也很少利用士人。

元廷派兵鎮壓各地紅巾軍，丞相脫脫親自率軍南下攻陷徐州芝麻李軍，一度壓制民變軍。然而脫脫在1354年南攻高郵張士誠軍之際，被元廷大臣彈劾而功虧一簣。徐壽輝部最後分裂成兩湖的陳友諒與四川的明玉珍。兩淮郭子興的部下朱元璋於1356年以南京為根據地開始擴充地盤；1363年與據有兩湖的陳友諒作戰，最後於鄱陽湖之戰獲得勝利；1365年占領兩湖後於同年冬東進攻打據有江蘇沿海的張士誠；1367年平定張士誠後，繼續南下壓制浙江的方國珍，至此江南無一人反抗朱元璋。另外，福建於1357年至1366年間發生亦思巴奚兵亂。福建地方為抵禦反元勢力籌建民團自守，但色目商人雇用的亦思巴奚軍割據泉州並向福建各地擴大勢力，最後被元將陳友定平定。與此同時，元朝在察罕帖木兒和李思齊等率領元軍反擊北方紅巾軍，1363年北方紅巾軍最後在安豐之役中敗給降元後的張士誠，劉福通戰死，韓林兒南下投奔朱元璋，隨後被殺。朱元璋統一江南後於1367年下令北伐，他派徐達、常遇春率明軍分別攻打山東與河南，並且封鎖潼關以防止關中元軍進援中原。明軍于1368年八月攻陷元大都，元惠宗北逃，史書稱此為元朝結束之年。然而元廷仍在上都，往後史書稱之為北元。而明廷認為元惠宗順天明命，謚號為元順帝。

元明之際有士人奉元朝為正朔，對元朝皆有故國之情，對於張士誠則有深厚的同情，而對於農民朱元璋則多表厭惡，當時江南士人，不論是否參加張吳政權，或參加朱明政權，乃至獨立人士，都相當懷念元朝。元明之際，由於元代的漢化色彩，漢人文士的華夷之辨觀念極為淡薄，而他們又不滿朱明所為，因而呈現強烈的遺民情結。朱明統治者憑藉紅巾武裝取得政權，在當時正統士大夫看來是「取天下非其道」，難逃僭偽之名，而且元末紅巾運動還帶有濃重宗教色彩，正統士人不僅視其為「賊」、「寇」，而且視之為「妖」。正如紅巾軍於汝陽起事，時人鄭元祐作詩稱「近者汝陽妖賊起，揮刀殺人丹汝水」，1359年，朱元璋部攻杭州，時人陳基記稱「妖寇犯杭」，洪武元年，明軍克大都，戴良作詩感慨「王氣幽州歇，妖氛國步屯」。

明初，不願仕官和不願效忠新朝廷的地主文人為了逃避徵闢而採取自殺、自殘、逃往漠北、 隱居深山等方法，誓不出仕（中國古代銓選，有「身言書判」四方面標準，身體有殘疾者不能任官）。為應對元遺民對明政權的鄙夷與漠視，朱元璋設立深受後人詬病的新刑罰，宣告「士大夫不為君用」律，大規模徵闢前朝遺老、搜羅岩穴隱士，並且殺害許多不願效忠明朝以及為新朝當官的學者：「率土之濱，莫非王臣。寰中士大夫不為君用，是自外其教者，誅其身而沒其家，不為之過」，導致「才能之士，數年來倖存者百無一二，今所任率迂儒俗吏」。

而居於中原的蒙古人則大量留于中原，在明代做官或參軍，史稱「達官」和「達軍」。

北元時期

1368年元廷退回蒙古草原，元惠宗退至上都，隔年又至應昌。他繼續使用「大元」國號，史稱北元。當時北方除了元惠宗據有漠南漠北，關中還有元將王保保駐守甘肅定西，此外元廷還領有東北地區與雲南地區。明太祖為了占領北方，採取兵分二路，各個擊破的方式，此即第一次北伐。元惠宗戰敗後于1370年在應昌去世，元昭宗即位後北逃至漠北和林。明將馮勝奪取了甘肅地區。然而元將王保保仍然在漠北多次與明將徐達等人作戰。明太祖曾多次寫信招降，但王保保從不理會，被朱元璋稱為「當世奇男子」。1378年四月，元昭宗去世，繼位的元天元帝繼續和明朝對抗，屢次侵犯明境。

至於北元領有的東北地區與雲南地區方面：1371年，元朝遼陽行省平章劉益降明，明朝占領遼寧南部。然而其餘東北地區仍由元朝太尉納哈出控制，納哈出屯兵二十萬于金山（今遼寧省昌圖金山堡以北遼河南岸一帶），自持畜牧豐盛，與明軍對峙了十幾年，多次拒絕明朝的招撫。1387年馮勝、傅友德、藍玉等人發動第五次北伐，目標是攻占納哈出的金山。經過多次戰爭，1387年10月，納哈出投降藍玉，明朝占領東北地區，最後還成立了兀良哈三衛。鎮守雲南的元朝梁王把匝剌瓦爾密，在元廷退回草原後仍然繼續忠效之。1371年明太祖派湯和等人領兵平定據有四川的明玉珍，並且勸降梁王未果。1381年12月，明軍攻入雲南，1382年梁王逃離昆明並自殺，隨後明軍攻克大理，明軍平定雲南地區。

明太祖為了徹底掃除北元勢力，於1388年5月命藍玉率領明軍十五萬發動第六次北伐。明軍橫跨戈壁至捕魚兒海（今中蒙邊境之貝爾湖）擊潰元軍，俘虜八萬餘人，元天元帝和他的長子天保奴逃走，但是幼子地保奴被明軍擒住，至此北元國勢大衰。1388年元天元帝被阿里不哥後裔也速迭爾殺害（此後去年號，一說去國號），1402年鬼力赤殺元帝坤帖木兒後去國號，明人稱為韃靼，北元亡。

疆域

元朝的前身為蒙古帝國，1206年元太祖成吉思汗成立時領有大漠南北與林木中地區（今貝加爾湖一帶）。經由成吉思汗等蒙古諸汗的經營，以及三次西征之後，蒙古帝國東達日本海與高麗、北達貝加爾湖、南與南宋對峙、西達東歐、黑海與伊拉克地區。成吉思汗時期分疆裂土給東道諸王與西道諸王，東道諸王是成吉思汗的弟弟，大多分封於塞北東部與東北地區，從屬性很高。西道諸王是成吉思汗的兒子，獨立性很好，其中分封長子朮赤於鹹海、裏海以北的欽察草原，後由拔都成立欽察汗國；封次子察合台於錫爾河以北的西遼舊地，史稱察合台汗國；三子窩闊台分封於乃蠻舊地，後由海都建立窩闊台汗國；蒙古本部由幼子拖雷獲得，後由蒙古大汗直轄。至於又稱漢地的華北地區、阿姆河與錫爾河之間的河中地區、伊朗地區與吐蕃由蒙古大汗直轄。1252年拖雷系的蒙哥即位後，命其弟旭烈兀西征西亞，最後建立伊兒汗國，與其他西道諸王合稱四大汗國。命忽必烈經營漢地、最後南滅大理。然而蒙哥於攻宋之役去世，隨後忽必烈與阿里不哥爭位使四大汗國紛紛不受蒙古大汗管制，蒙古帝國至此分裂。

元世祖忽必烈鑒於四大汗國不服於他，於是將西亞地區大汗直轄地割讓給旭烈兀（後來建立伊兒汗國），河中地區大汗直轄地割讓給察合台汗阿魯忽，以換取他們的支持。1279年元世祖在建立元朝後南滅南宋，一統中國地區，當時的疆域是：北到西伯利亞南部，越過貝加爾湖，南到南海，西南包括今西藏、雲南，西北至今新疆東部，東北至外興安嶺、鄂霍次克海、日本海，包括庫頁島，總面積超過1300萬平方千米。自滅亡南宋後雖然多次對日本、緬甸與爪哇等國有所衝突，然而疆域大體趨于穩定。1309年元武宗時期，元朝和察合台汗國先後攻滅窩闊台汗國，元朝取得窩闊台汗國東部部分領土，領土達1400萬平方公里（如果北方領土延伸至北冰洋，則為2200萬平方公里）。元朝的藩屬國有高麗、緬甸、安南、占城、爪哇及欽察汗國、察合台汗國、與伊兒汗國等國。北有漠北諸部、南有南洋諸國、西有四大汗國。其中有兩個直屬的藩屬國，即高麗王朝與緬甸蒲甘王朝，分別建立征東行省與緬中行省。

西北方面，1268年窩闊台汗國的海都意圖奪回汗位而聯合欽察汗國與察合台汗國反元，史稱海都之亂。直到1304年元成宗時期，元廷與這三大汗國達成和議，並與伊兒汗國一同承認元朝的宗主地位，成為元朝的藩屬國，而元朝設立的行政機構（如行中書省和宣政院）也未包括這些領土。而且元成宗並賜伊兒汗國君主刻有「真命皇帝和順萬夷之寶」等漢文印璽，實質上也承認其獨立性。到1309年元武宗時期，元朝和察合台汗國先後攻滅窩闊台汗國，於元文宗年間編纂《經世大典》時，將欽察汗國、察合台汗國與伊兒汗國作為元朝的藩屬國。

行政區劃

元朝行政區劃大致上承襲金朝與宋朝制度，然而有兩個不同之處：元朝時的路統轄的面積減少，一路僅轄二州；元廷在路上設有行省等中書省外派單位，最後行省取代路成為一級行政區，形成行省制，這是中國曆史上首次正式在全國實行行省制度。元朝行政區劃由高至低依序分為行省、路、府、州與縣，另有等同行省的宣政院轄地、歸中書省直轄的「腹裏」以及等同州的土司。

腹裏是由中書省直轄的路府，宣政院（初名總制院）轄地主管吐蕃地區。行政首長以蒙古人為主、漢人為副。每省設置丞相一員，其下有平章、左右丞相即參知政事官，名稱大略與中書省相同。元代在行省以下各行政區均設置達魯花赤作（斷事官）為地方首長，並以漢人或當地土人為副，以利蒙古人控制地方區域。每路以達魯花赤為主、總管為副各一員。而府州縣均以達魯花赤為主、尹為副。州、縣均分上中下三等，中下州改州尹為知州。土司分有宣慰使、宣撫使與安撫使，於湖廣行省境內設置十五個安撫司，又於湖廣、四川行省分至四個軍。邊區的安撫司和軍，約當內地的下州，也置達魯花赤為主，其副為地方人士。縣以下基層行政區劃設有城關的坊里制與農村的村社制。坊里制於城內分若乾片，名曰隅（如東西隅、西南隅之類）。隅下設坊，置坊官、坊司。坊下設里或社，置里正、社長；有的設巷而不設里，置巷長。村社制又稱村畽制度，於縣下設鄉，置鄉長，有的改設里正。鄉之下設都，置主首。都之下設村社，社設社長。

行中書省全稱為「某某等處行中書省」，簡稱「某某行中書省」或「某某行省」，源自金朝的行尚書省。這是基於新征服之地的文化差異太大，所以中央政府就專門設置外派單位來管轄之。由於戰爭等需求，行省除了負責行政之外也負責軍事，最後逐漸形成一級行政區。早在蒙古時期就設有燕京（華北漢地）、別失八里（西遼等今新疆地區）、阿母河（中亞河中地區）等三斷事官或行尚書省。元朝初年的行省管轄範圍很大，改變也比較頻繁，主要由中書省宰執帶相銜臨時到某一地區負責行政或征伐事務。1260年，元世祖於國內設置十路宣撫司，次年罷之。隔年改設十路宣慰司，漸成定製，並且設置陝西四川行省。往後直到滅宋為止，大多採行宣慰司與行省並行的制度。行省大多依據西夏、大理疆域與南宋新失之地設置，稱為「中書省臣出行省事」，滅南宋將全國分為中書省直轄的腹裏、宣政院轄地與十多個行中書省，並設置專司征討外國的行省。1321年元英宗時期共設置十一個行省（包含在藩屬國高麗設置的征東行省）。至元朝末年，行省增至十五個。

• 一級行政區分布：

• 腹裏：由中書省直轄首都大都附近的中心之地，約今河北、山東、山西及內蒙古部分地區。

• 宣政院轄地：宣政院除了管理全國佛教事務外，尚管轄吐蕃地區軍政事務，約今青海、西藏。

• 行中書省：元世祖至元成宗時期設有十個，陝西、遼陽、甘肅、河南江北、四川、雲南、湖廣、江浙、江西、嶺北行中書省。

• 另外甘肅行省之西的哈密力（今哈密地區）、北庭都元帥府（別失八里）與火州之地不屬任何行省管轄。

• 征討行省分布：

• 征宋行省：如中統和至元前期的陝西四川行省、河東行省、北京行省、山東行省、西夏中興行省、南京河南府等路行省、雲南行省、平宋戰爭前後的荊湖行省、江淮行省等。滅宋後定型為一般的行中書省。

• 征外行省：於高麗設置征東行省（又稱征日本行省）、於緬甸（蒲甘王朝）設置緬中行省（又稱征緬行省）、於安南（陳朝）設置交趾行省（又稱安南行省）、於占城設置占城行省（蒙越戰爭失敗後撤銷）。這些都是臨時性的建置，事畢即罷。只有徵東行省，到元朝中期之後，穩定成高麗王的頭銜。行省丞相分別由該國國王或遠征軍主將擔任，自闢官屬，且財賦不入都省，視作藩屬國，故與其他行省性質不同。

• 平亂行省：元末民變時，元廷為便於鎮壓民變軍，先後於腹裏地區的濟寧（今山東巨野）、彰德（今河南安陽）、冀寧（今山西太原）、保定、真定（今河北正定）、大同等地置中書分省。又分別設立淮南江北行省（至正十二年設於揚州）、福建行省（至正十六年設於福州，後分省泉州、建寧）、山東行省（至正十七年）、廣西行省、膠東行省（至正二十三年）和福建江西行省（至正二十六年）。

另外元末民變的群雄也設置行省以便於統治，如天完之江南行省、汴梁行省、隴蜀行省、江西行省，韓宋之江南行省、益都行省，以及朱元璋所置江西行省、湖廣行省、江淮行省、江浙行省等。

元代行省之下的政區劃分十分複雜且時常變化，簡單時只存在行省、府州、縣三級，複雜時則會出現行省、道（宣慰司）、路（總管府）、府州、縣五級的情況。這跟元代「投下封邑」制度息息相關，具體政區分級可能有：

• 道（宣慰司）

元代的道的直接來源即宋金的道路制度。中統三年李璮之亂爆發後，元廷為監察境內漢族世侯，開始仿照宋制設立臨時且轄區不定的宣慰司，此時宣慰司多數兼行省相副銜。隨著中國的統一，過于龐大的行省已經無法有效處理省內事務，且也有外重內輕之嫌，故至元十五年以後，對宣慰司進行大量的改革，裁撤了宣慰使相副銜並改任行省下屬，使之成為轄區固定的行省分支機構及分管區域，其轄區劃分也大致與宋金的道路級政區重合。同時由于行省首府附近的地域不設宣慰司，因此產生了直屬省部的路州以及分屬諸道的路州，但性質上這些都屬于「直隸路州」。

• 直隸路州與封邑型政區

元代直隸于省部或宣慰司道的路州中存在大量的投下封邑型政區，這也是造成元代行政區劃層級嚴重混亂的主要原因。基本上，直隸省部或宣慰司道的路州政區除少數衝要繁盛之地外，都是分封予漢族世侯和蒙古宗室的投下封邑。根據其規模戶口的大小，可以分為總管府路、府、州三類，其關係則可參考吳澄所云「皇元因前代郡縣之制損益之。郡之大者曰路。其次曰府若州……府若州，如古次國、小國。路設總管府，如古大國之為連率」。

• 總管府路：總管府路的設置與宣慰司道相似，也是源于宋金的道路制度，但目的性質不盡相同。蒙古初入主中原，以四大世侯為首的漢族地方軍閥向蒙廷效忠，蒙廷則依仿金代制度，授予「某路都元帥」「某路都總管」的頭銜，確認其在地方的高度世襲自治權，從而建立在漢地的政權機構，是為總管府路之濫觴，此時諸路規模建制與金代諸路相仿，四大世侯為首的有力總管其轄區更大。李璮之亂爆發後，元世祖為削弱地方割據勢力，不但開始設置流官監察的宣慰司道，同時也對這類具有封邑性質的總管府路進行拆分，使一路僅轄三至四府州，但並沒有改變總管府路封邑的政區性質，而是把它們轉封給蒙古宗室，轉封過程遵從「畫境之制」，儘量使一王之封自成一路。滅宋後，置路以封諸侯的制度也在舊宋屬地推行，這次的劃分則更加零散，甚至到了「一州自成一路」的狀況。

• 直隸府：除了總管府路的屬府屬州，一些府因為地處衝要或者以一府為封邑（主要在北方）而直隸于省部或宣慰司。少數人口眾多地域廣大的直隸散府（如南陽府、汝寧府、歸德府等）經過後世的屬區調整後更轄屬州。直隸府與總管府路相比數量非常稀少，並非投下封邑的主要形態。

• 直隸州：與直隸府相似，極少數一些地處衝要或以一州為封邑的州（主要在北方）也直隸于省部或宣慰司。比較特殊的狀況是，假如一些宗王的封地只有一縣（比如蒙古開國功臣畏答兒之孫忽都虎郡王的封邑陽山縣）的話，該縣一般會升格為直隸州（升為桂陽州）。直隸州的數目比直隸府稍多，但仍遠不及總管府路。

封邑型政區與其他直隸路州的最大區別在于達魯花赤的設置，封邑型政區的達魯花赤最早不由中央簡任，而是由封君選任，作為封君在其封邑的代理人，行使最高決策權，保証封君在封邑的利益，而為了強化中央集權，一般上實際負責路州行政的總管、知府等為朝廷選任。

• 統縣型政區

統縣型政區即直接統領縣級政區的中層政區，同樣分為路（實質上為總管府路之首府即總府，總府所轄縣在史料中多記述為直轄于路）、府、州三類，這些政區或作為投下封邑的一部分隸屬于總管府路或部分直隸府（稱為屬府、屬州），或作為獨立的封邑直隸于省部或宣慰司道。其中屬府的數量非常少，主要的統縣型政區依然是屬州。

政治制度

元朝與蒙古帝國的皇位繼承異於中國歷代王朝，採取庫力台大會推舉的制度，由王室貴族公推大家的領袖。而元朝皇帝也是兼任蒙古帝國的可汗，由於元世祖的汗位沒有經過庫力台大會的認可，使得四大汗國紛紛不奉正朔，直到元成宗方恢復宗主關係。元世祖建立元朝後，有意立真金為太子，定傳子之局，可惜真金早死而使繼承問題又浮現。元朝而後常因皇太子早死或兄弟爭位而動盪不安，中期又有武仁之約的協定，武宗系與仁宗系交替繼承皇位，然而又因元仁宗廢除協定而再度混亂。元朝的繼承問題直到元惠宗方穩定，但也進入元朝末期。元朝政治制度與金朝一樣承襲宋朝制度，採取文武分權的制度，以中書省總理政務，樞密院掌管兵權。然而元朝的中書省已成為中央最高行政機關，元朝不設置門下省，尚書省時設時不設，僅元世祖時期與元武宗時期有設置，所以門下省與尚書省的權力皆交給中書省。中書省統領六部，主持全國政務，形成明清內閣制的先驅。其組織架構繼承南宋體制，宰相的稱呼共有中書令、司統率百官與總理政務等，常以皇太子兼任。下分左右丞相，中書令缺則總領中書事務。平章政事又居次，凡軍國重事，無不參決。副相方面有左右丞、參政等。六部共有吏部、戶部、禮部、兵部、刑部與工部，內有尚書、侍郎。尚書省主要負責財政事務，不過時置時廢。樞密院執掌軍事，御史台負責督察，與宋朝制度大致相同，然而在地方設有行中書省、行樞密院與行御史台。此外又有掌管學校的集賢院、掌管御膳的宣徽院、掌管驛傳的通政院，其他還有太常禮儀院、太史院、太醫院與將作院，略前代的九寺諸監。最後新成立的是宣政院（初名總制院），負責佛教及吐蕃（今西藏）地區軍政事務，這是前代所沒有的。

元朝在推行漢人的典章制度與維護蒙古舊法之間，時常發生衝突，並且分裂成守舊派與崇漢派。早在元太祖成吉思汗攻佔漢地後，有賴耶律楚材與木華黎推行漢法以維護其典章制度。當時近臣別迭建議將漢人驅趕並把中原變成大牧場以收取財富，遭到耶律楚材的反對，他認為可用徵稅的方式獲得財富，因此保留了漢地的典章制度。他積極改變蒙古軍以往「凡攻城邑，敵以矢石相加者，即為拒命，既克，必殺之。」的作風，努力興科祟儒、整頓吏治，實為漢法推行之祖。木華黎為了便於管理漢地，也於漢族四大世侯合作，逐漸鞏固了對河北、山西等地的治理。

後來管理漢地的元世祖忽必烈也積極推動漢法，任用了大批漢族幕僚和儒士等創設典章制度，如劉秉忠、許衡和姚樞等，並提出了「行漢法」的主張。積極推動了學習漢文的熱潮。如元世祖就非常熟悉漢文典籍、禮儀制度，並能用漢文創作詩歌，並且還以法律的形式規定，太子必須學習漢文。接受儒士元好問和張德輝提議的「儒教大宗師」稱號。忽必烈最後在大都建元稱帝，創建中國式的元朝，建立了一套以傳統中國中央集權作藍本的政治體制，例如設立了三省六部和司農司等一系列專司機構，使用中原的統治機構來統治人民，任劉秉忠等人的規劃建立首都大都。然而，元世祖在李璮叛亂後，對漢人的信任下降。而四大汗國以及守舊派蒙古王室都不滿元世祖行漢法的舉動，或叛變或疏遠之。元世祖晚年也漸與儒臣疏遠，任用阿合馬、盧世榮與桑哥等色目人與漢人為首的理財派，漢法最後未成為一套完整的體系。後來的元仁宗、元英宗、元文宗與元惠宗等人更是可以純熟地運用漢文進行創作。一些入居中原的蒙古貴族，羨慕漢文化，還請了儒生當家庭教師教育子女。為了學習方便還翻譯了許多漢文典籍，諸如《通鑒節要》、《論語》、《孟子》、《大學》、《中庸》、《周禮》、《春秋》、《孝經》等。但崇漢派與守舊派時常發生衝突與政變，例如南坡之變等。

在人才選用方面，元朝雖然許多制度都沿襲了宋朝，但關於科舉，元朝前期並沒有常態化的定期舉辦科舉，因此高級官僚的錄用端看與元廷關係遠近而決定，主要採取世襲、恩蔭與推舉制的方式。此外尚有循胥吏（小公務員）昇進為官僚的方式，這與宋朝制度大異。宋朝官與吏的界限分明，胥吏大多以胥吏為終，然而元朝因為缺乏科舉取才，就以推舉或考試胥吏的方式晉升為官，這打破官吏屏障，使官吏成為上下的關係。科舉選材方面，窩闊台汗聽從耶律楚材建議，召集名儒講經於東宮，率大臣子弟聽講。又置「編修所」於燕京，「經籍所」於平陽，倡導學習漢族古代文化，又在1234年設「經書國子學」，以馮誌常為總教習，命侍臣子弟 18人入學，學習漢文化。並且於1238年以術忽德和劉中舉辦戊戌選試，此次科舉取士錄取4030人，並且建立儒戶以保護士大夫。但最後仍廢除科舉，改採推舉制度，往後於1252年與1276年兩次共入選3890儒戶。元世祖忽必烈即位後，正式設立了國子學，以河南許衡為集賢大學士兼國子祭酒，親擇蒙古子弟使教之，遍學儒家經典文史，培養統治人才。1289年元世祖下詔登記江南人口戶籍，次年正式施行推舉制度，此次登記成為後來戶計的依據。直到1313年，提倡漢化運動的元仁宗下詔恢復科舉，元仁宗恢復科舉，由程鉅夫、李孟、許師敬擬定元朝科舉制度。1314年八月在全國的17處考場，舉行鄉試，1315年二月和三月相繼在大都舉行會試和殿試（廷試），因為是在延祐年間舉行的，史稱「延祐復科」，本次科舉以程朱理學為考試的內容。榜分左右兩榜，官位相同，第一名從六品，第二名以下及第二甲，皆正七品，進士三甲以下都能授正八品官員，如1238年戊戌選試的狀元楊奐，1315年的乙卯科左榜狀元張起岩。元朝前後共舉行過16次，選舉蒙古、色目、漢人、南人進士約 1100餘人。蒙古、色目人應舉者遠遠少於漢人、南人。然而為了保障蒙古人與色目人的名額，實行難度不同的「分榜取士」，並且給蒙古人與色目人保留了超過其應舉比例的名額，這也讓蒙古與色目子弟失去了學習漢族文化的積極性和進取精神。《元統元年進士錄》的記載稱四等人名額相等，各25人，但讀書人總數確實南人、漢人要遠多于蒙古、色目，因此也有破例，如延佑首科的錄取名額給左榜的要遠多于右榜。雖然是聊勝於無的科舉，但在形式上已經恢復，且持續堅持下去。原來放棄科舉的士子重新獲得了入仕機會，因此漢族士大夫莫不對元廷忠心耿耿。在元朝滅亡之際，捨身殉國的就有很多是科舉出身者，可見科舉復辦對懷柔漢族士大夫有一定效果。

外交

元朝時與各國外交往來頻繁，各地派遣的使節、傳教士、商旅等絡繹不絕，其中威尼斯商人尼可羅兄弟及其子馬可波羅成為得到元朝皇帝寵信，在元朝擔任外交專使的外國人。元廷曾要求周邊一些國家或地區（包括日本、安南、占城、緬甸、爪哇）臣服，接受與元朝的朝貢關係，但遭到拒絕，故派遣軍隊進攻攻打這些國家或地區，其中以元日戰爭最為著名，也最慘烈。

東北地區

東北方面有高麗王朝與日本鎌倉幕府。高麗王朝領有朝鮮半島，之後被崔氏政權統治，高麗王變成傀儡。高麗先後臣服於遼朝與金朝，蒙古興起後與高麗共同伐金，並約為兄弟之國。1225年蒙古要求高麗向其朝貢，蒙古使節抵達義州邊境時，被高麗所害，當時蒙古忙於西征，無暇征討。1231年窩闊臺汗派撒禮塔率兵入侵高麗，崔氏政權領袖崔瑀抵禦失敗，高麗首都松都（今開城）被攻陷，史稱高麗蒙古戰爭。蒙軍設置多位達魯花赤以監督高麗政事。隔年崔瑀殺死達魯花赤，擁護高麗王高麗高宗從松都遷往江華島，並且長期抗蒙，另外三別抄軍抵抗蒙軍至1273年。然而高麗朝廷分裂成反戰的文派，與抗蒙的崔氏政權。貴由、蒙哥時又四次討伐掠奪高麗地，1258年崔氏政權被顛覆後，高麗高宗遣子稱臣，正式成為蒙古的藩屬國。1283年元世祖為了討伐日本，於高麗國設置征東行省，高麗王為行省的左丞相，內政受蒙古人控制。高麗君主從忠烈王開始娶蒙古公主為妻，高麗君主繼承人按照約定，必須在元大都以蒙古人的方式長大成人後，方可回高麗。高麗成為元朝的藩屬國後，元世祖六次遣使者要求日本朝貢，均告失敗，於是發起元日戰爭。1274年元軍發動第一次侵日戰爭，，日本史書稱為「文永之役」，元廷派三萬二千餘人東征日本，最後因為颱風侵襲而傷亡慘重。1281年七月，忽必烈又發動第二次侵日戰爭，日本史書稱為「弘安之役」，由范文虎、李庭率江南軍十餘萬人，到達次能、志賀二島，因日軍積極抵抗，且元軍又遇到颱風，最後再度慘敗。通常認為颱風（日本人稱之為「神風」）與元軍不擅水戰是造成失敗的最大原因（另一方面，高麗和南宋工匠故意製作式樣錯誤的戰船）。而後元世祖又準備第三次東征，因大臣勸阻，再加上出兵安南的緣故而罷。而後元世祖多次遣使均遭日本拒絕，通使關係一直未能建立，但是元朝與日本的經濟和文化交流仍然十分繁盛，來元日本人以商人與禪僧最多。元廷令沿海官司通日本國人市舶，主要港口是慶元（今寧波）。

南洋諸國

南洋諸國有安南（陳朝）、占城與爪哇（滿者伯夷）等國。安南國據有今越南北部，於五代北宋時期獨立於中華。蒙古大汗蒙哥於1257年派兀良哈台南攻安南，蒙越戰爭爆發。越南陳太宗被蒙軍擊敗，上表稱臣，蒙哥封為安南國王，而越南陳聖宗繼位後不願向元朝稱臣。當時在安南南方還有占城國，1282年占城國王因陀羅跋摩六世遣使朝貢，元世祖因此設置荊湖占城行中書省，以阿裏海牙為該行省的平章政事。由於占城王扣留元使，元世祖藉此發兵分水陸攻打占城與安南。他以唆都率水軍由廣州渡海攻打占城。隔年蒙古水軍攻下占城國王據守的木城，占城國王因陀羅跋摩六世求和，但於蒙古退軍後殺使者。1284年元世祖再派鎮南王脫歡、阿裏海牙與唆都率陸軍借道安南南征占城，被時任太上皇的陳聖宗反抗而爆發戰爭。元軍大舉入侵，占領安南國都。但陳聖宗、陳興道率領的陳軍積極抵抗，並且瘟疫四竄。最後元軍於1285年撤退，途中遭安南軍襲擊，損失過半。而後1288年又南征失敗，隨後安南請和。這場戰爭至元成宗才廢止，安南與占城相繼入貢元廷。當時南洋群島諸國，也多貢於元朝。有名的有馬蘭丹（今馬六甲）、蘇木都拉（今蘇門答臘）等。1292年元世祖命亦黑迷失、史弼與高興率福建水軍南征爪哇滿者伯夷王國，並降其鄰國葛郎（爪哇島以東），但中計受突擊，戰敗而還，以後爪哇仍然派使朝貢。此外元世祖亦派使者招降琉求國，然使者僅至澎湖而返。

西南地區

西南地區有大理國、吐蕃、緬甸（蒲甘王朝）、八百媳婦國（蘭納泰王國）與暹邏。大理源自唐朝的南詔，937年由段思平滅南詔建國，占有現今雲南地區，後由高昇泰等高氏政權掌控。1252年蒙哥汗命忽必烈與兀良合台自四川迂迴南滅大理，原大理國王段氏被任為大理世襲總管。吐蕃自晚唐就走向衰退，但其境內藏傳佛教（又被漢人貶稱為喇嘛教）日漸興盛，喇嘛的勢力超過贊普（吐蕃王）的地位。1247年窩闊台汗次子闊端召請喇嘛班智達來涼州，史稱涼州會盟，此後吐蕃喇嘛與蒙古大汗形成了布施關係（詳見元朝治藏歷史）。忽必烈南征大理時，分兵伐吐蕃，喇嘛班智達與贊普同時投降，吐蕃亡。元世祖封班智達的繼承人八思巴為「帝師」，兼任總制院（後改為宣政院）院使，取得了統治烏思藏地區的權力，使西藏統治者由贊普轉為喇嘛。緬甸為唐朝的驃國，宋朝以後稱緬，國內部落稱甸，所以又稱緬甸。元朝初期緬甸為蒲甘王朝，其王朝西併阿剌幹（今孟加拉灣一帶），南併勃固（今仰光以北），並進占暹羅。元世祖派使招降不從，緬甸反派軍入侵雲南，元緬戰爭爆發，而後元兵又多次進攻緬甸。1283年元世祖派軍入侵緬甸，兩年後緬甸王請和。1287年緬甸內亂，元軍乘機進攻緬甸，蒲甘城破，緬甸成為元朝的藩屬，緬甸王那羅梯訶波帝失去王位，元廷建緬中行省，而後以蒲甘國王任行省左丞相，成為元朝傀儡。1368年撣族於緬甸東部阿瓦建立阿瓦王國，首領為阿散哥。孟族建都於馬達班，1369年遷都勃固，建立勃固王朝，二王國南北交戰。撣族阿散哥挾持緬甸王，使元成宗派元軍討伐，最後迫使阿散哥派使朝貢。蘭納泰王國（元人稱八百媳婦國）位於撣族東邊的金三角，曾聯合阿散哥抵抗元軍，元廷多次討伐未果，直到元泰定帝時才內附。暹羅地區原有素可泰王朝（元人稱暹國）、大城王國（元人稱羅斛）以及其他小國。暹國曾擴張其勢力於馬來半島，元成宗後遣使進貢八次。羅斛自元世祖末年就開始進貢，並於元末時期併吞暹國等小國，統一為暹羅國。

歐洲與非洲地區

蒙古帝國的三次西征的同時，正值教宗提倡十字軍東征西亞的伊斯蘭國家以收復耶路撒冷。由於教宗急需外援以抗衡伊斯蘭教徒，而歐洲基督教國家剛剛經歷蒙古第二次西征，再加上東西交通十分便利，紛紛派使者東行了解這個東方大國。教宗於1245年曾派柏朗嘉賓經欽察汗國到和林謁見貴由汗，返國著成《柏朗嘉賓蒙古行紀》。1253年法國國王路易九世派魯布魯克以傳教為名到和林進見蒙哥汗，返國著有《魯布魯克東行紀》。1316年義大利人鄂多立克經海路至元大都，參加了元泰定帝的宮廷慶典，回國著成《鄂多立克東遊錄》，範圍遠達西藏，對元大都及宮廷的描寫較細。最著名的是義大利探險家馬可波羅，他隨經商的父親、叔父於1275年到元朝進見元世祖，直至1291年才離去。他擔任元廷官吏，歷游元朝各地，其著寫的《馬可波羅遊記》對元朝進行多角度反映，吸引歐洲人東行中國。另外元朝與非洲地區諸國也有來往，汪大淵在1330年和1337年二度飄洋過海親身經歷的南洋和西洋二百多個地方的地理、風土、物產，最後著成《島夷誌略》，影響明代初期的鄭和下西洋。

軍事

元朝軍隊按照親疏關係分成蒙古軍、探馬赤軍、漢軍與新附軍等四個等級。蒙古軍與探馬赤軍主要是騎兵。漢軍、新附軍大多為步軍，也配有部分騎兵。水軍編有水軍萬戶府、水軍千戶所等。炮軍由炮手和制炮工匠組成，編有炮手萬戶府、炮手千戶所，設有炮手總管等。一部分侍衛親軍中，還專置弩軍千戶所，管領禁衛軍中的弓箭手。

蒙古軍是元朝軍隊的骨幹，主要由蒙古族組成。蒙古軍早在成吉思汗統一蒙古時即創立，平時分布在草原上駐牧，戰時臨時招集。採用兵民合一的萬戶制，按十進制編組成十戶、百戶、千戶。只要是十五歲至七十以內的人皆服兵役，其童子稍微年長者也組成「漸丁軍」。元朝時期在漢地和江南軍戶中簽發丁男應役。探馬赤軍又名簽軍，隨著戰爭的發展，統治者需要一支蒙古軍隊長期留守被征服地區，于是從蒙古各部中「簽發」了部分士兵，組成專門用于鎮戍的探馬赤軍。自1217年木華黎討伐金朝時建立，由弘吉剌、兀魯兀、忙兀、札剌亦兒及亦乞烈思五部組成，西征花剌子模後回族、維吾爾族與突厥族等族成為探馬赤軍的一部分。探馬赤軍精於火砲與西方的回回砲，攻城力強。「下馬則屯聚牧養，上馬則備戰」。

漢軍是蒙古帝國占領漢地後發民為兵，主要由金朝女真與契丹降軍、早期降蒙的南宋軍、漢地的地方漢族武裝勢力與簽發漢地百姓等所組成。窩闊台汗於1229年收編金朝女真與契丹降軍，在漢地民戶中大規模簽發士兵，補充漢軍兵員，將蒙古軍的編製和官稱用於漢軍系統強。各漢軍萬戶統軍人數不等，「大者五、六萬，小者不下二、三萬」。漢軍有「舊軍」與「新軍」的區別。舊軍主要指敵國降軍和地方武裝勢力，新軍指從漢地百姓簽發的新兵。元世祖忽必烈即位後，蒙元帝國的統治重心由漠北草原移到了中原漢地。元世祖對軍隊體制進行改革，逐步建成中央宿衛軍和地方鎮戍軍兩大系統，確定了元軍的編製和隸屬關係，在元朝對外戰爭中，漢軍發揮了重要的作用。新附軍主要是元朝南征南宋期間收邊的降軍，又被稱為新附漢軍、南軍等。新附軍內名號繁雜，而是元廷因士兵所具不同特點而起的名稱，如券軍、手號軍與鹽軍等等。估計當時新附軍的數量在二十萬人上下，元帝將新附軍分編到元軍的侍衛軍和鎮戌軍中；或以蒙古、漢人、南人建立新的軍府，管領新附軍人。每當有戰事發生，首先調發各軍中的新附軍出征，其餘則從事屯田和工役造作。經過多年的戰爭消耗和自然減員，新附軍數量日益減少，最後式微。

元朝的防衛分宿衛和鎮戍兩大系統。宿衛軍由怯薛和侍衛親軍構成，其中怯薛軍保留自成吉思汗創立的四怯薛番直宿衛，常額在萬人以上，元朝功臣博爾忽、博爾朮、木華黎、赤老溫或其後人充任怯薛長。在戰爭中，怯薛則是全軍的中堅力量，被稱之為「也客豁勒」（大中軍）；侍衛親軍則是忽必烈在華北漢人世侯的建議下所置，在初期蒙制怯薛未形成戰鬥力之時負責宿衛之職以及與阿里不哥爭奪權力。其後，侍衛親軍用於保衛大都，衛設都指揮史或率史，隸屬於樞密院。鎮戍軍由蒙古軍和探馬赤軍守衛靠近京畿的要地，華北、陝西、四川的蒙古軍、探馬赤軍由各地的都萬戶府（都元帥府）統領，隸屬於樞密院。南方以蒙古軍、漢軍、新附軍共同駐守，防禦重點是江淮地區，隸屬於各行省。鎮戍諸軍，有警時由行樞密院統領，平時日常事務歸行省，但調遣更防等重要軍務則歸屬樞密院決定。

元朝水軍原是為了元滅宋之戰而準備，1270年命劉整建造大量水軍。襄樊之戰時元朝水軍與陸軍協同包圍襄陽，攻下後降將呂文煥又率元水軍與河岸陸軍協同於丁家洲之戰擊潰南宋水軍精銳，至此領有全部長江水域。而後張弘範又率元朝水軍（平底船）渡海南下追擊南宋海軍，最後於崖山海戰包圍殲滅之，元朝水軍在滅宋之戰有重要的功能。元朝融合了南宋和阿拉伯航海技術，使海軍技術更加成熟，然而在對外戰事中，元日戰爭與元爪戰爭均以失敗結束，而且對日戰爭兩次均被颱風所毀，只有對占城的戰役獲勝而已。

人口

早在蒙古時期，北方人口就不斷的南逃，總人數約占北方人口的十分之一，這種現象到惠宗時都還持續發生，元廷屢禁而不能止。在大蒙古國征服金朝期間在戰地進行了大規模屠殺和掠奪。隨後的瘟疫與饑荒導致東亞地區大量人口消失，其中又以金朝的華北和南宋的川陝四路十分嚴重。這是導致「湖廣填四川」移民運動發生的重大原因。

1234年3月9日金滅亡後，華北地區約有110萬戶與600萬人，只有1208年的金朝人口5353萬的13%。蒙古宋戰爭期間，南宋境內因戰爭總計消滅了大約1500萬人口，主要集中在川陝四路地區。1279年元軍完全剿滅四川的抗元勢力後，在1280年的戶口調查僅為9萬餘戶與50萬餘人，只有1231年蒙古入侵川陝四路地區前的4%。大蒙古國時期有過兩次戶口統計，先有1235年窩闊台汗推行的乙未籍戶，獲得華北地區如燕京（今北京）、順天（今河北保定）等三十六路的人口資料，後有1252年蒙哥汗完成的壬子籍戶，顯示華北人口略有增加。1271年元世祖建國號為大元。雖然在元成宗到元惠宗至正初年期間政治動盪不安，儘管每年也成百上千次人民起義，但社會上基本處於安定狀態，經濟大體上也是呈現增長的狀態，這些都促使人口增長，大約在惠宗至正十年（1351年）達到高峰。元惠宗至正年間（1341年－1370年）全國發生多次大規模的災荒饑饉疾病和瘟疫，最終促使紅巾軍起義爆發。紅巾軍起義之後又造成人口大量減少。明太祖建國後論到：「前代革命之際，肆行屠戮，違天虐民，朕實不忍。」

元代戶口統計並不是準確，無法涵蓋的人口包括逃戶、因土地兼併而蔭蔽的隱戶、流民以及私屬人口等。朝廷不納入戶口統計的人口包括：嶺北等處行中書省、雲南等處行中書省、西南土司地區和宣政院轄地的居民；蒙古諸王、貴族、軍將的大量私屬人口（驅口、投下戶，怯憐口、打捕鷹房人戶）；獨立於州縣以外的諸色戶計（軍戶、站戶、匠戶、民屯戶、釋、道、儒戶、游食者）等。現在歷史學者只能根據史書的原始數據與他們掌握的歷史資料的來推斷，所以差異甚大，僅作參考。人口逃亡的現象很嚴重，如1241年，忽都虎等元籍諸路民戶1,004,656戶，逃戶即達280,746戶，占全部人戶的28％。另外，隨著民族關係日益密切，往來與雜居也相當普遍。從蒙金戰爭時期就陸續有大批漢人被遷往蒙古草原以及天山南北、遼陽等處行中書省與雲南等處行中書省各地；蒙古與色目官員、軍戶、商人等也大量移居中原內地；雲南地區居住的蒙古人約十萬人左右；大都、上都等政治城市及杭州、泉州、鎮江等商業城市都居住許多蒙古人、畏兀兒（維吾爾祖先）、穆斯林、黨項人、女真人與契丹人等，促成民族之間經濟文化的交流。

「四等人制」

有說法認為由於蒙古人與漢人的人數比例極不平均，元廷為了保護蒙古人地位，主張蒙古至上主義，推行蒙古人、色目人（包括西域各族和西夏人）、漢人（原金朝統治下的人民）、南人（南宋統治下的漢人）等四個階級的制度，但該制度並不見于官方文告及檔案。有學者認為，元廷給蒙古人與色目人極大的權利，並讓漢人與南人負擔較大的賦稅與勞役，民族壓迫和階級壓迫十分沉重。儘管學術界迄今並沒有發現元代有把臣民明確劃分為四等的專門法令，但元廷對于各民族的不平等態度卻反映在一些政策和規定中，例如漢人打死怯薛需要償命，而怯薛打死漢人只需「斷罰出征，並全征燒埋銀」（原文為怯薛歹蒙古人，怯薛歹為元代一特權階級）。此外漢人做官也往往只能做副貳（雖然實際上存在很多例外情況，終元一代朝廷仍任用不少漢人為官，如元初的史天澤、元末的賀惟一等曾官拜丞相）。

「九儒十丐」

有說法認為「九儒十丐」是元朝的定製，顯示出在蒙古統治下儒士在社會的下等地位。此「九儒十丐」的說法來自南宋遺民謝枋得，其〈送方伯載歸三山序〉云：「滑稽之雄，以儒為戲者曰：『我大元制典，人有十等：一官、二吏；先之者，貴之也，貴之者，謂有益於國也。七匠、八娼、九儒、十丐；後之者，賤之也，賤之者，謂無益於國也。』嗟乎卑哉！介乎娼之下，丐之上者，今之儒也。」及同樣是南宋遺民的鄭思肖〈大義略序〉曰：「韃法，一官、二吏、三僧、四道、五醫、六工、七獵、八民、九儒、十丐。」但因其政治立場，並不能完全盡信，或作為元朝儒士社會地位低下的佐證。中外史學界已有學者對元代儒士的地位問題進行過深入的研究，否定了元代儒人地位低落的說法。

經濟

元代經濟呈現多元格局，經濟活躍發達，大致上以農業為主，有學者認為其整體生產力雖然不如宋朝，但在生產技術、墾田面積、糧食產量、水利興修以及棉花廣泛種植等方面都取得了較大發展。蒙古人原來是遊牧民族，草原時期以畜牧為主，經濟單一，無所謂土地制度。蒙金戰爭時期，大臣耶律楚材建議保留漢人的農業生產，以提供財政上的收入來源，這個建議受到鐵木真的採納。窩闊台之後，為了鞏固對漢地統治，實行了一些鼓勵生產、安撫流亡的措施，農業生產逐漸恢復。特別是經濟作物棉花的種植不斷推廣，棉花及棉紡織品在江南一帶種植和運銷都在南宋基礎上有所增加。經濟作物商品性生產的發展，就使當時基本上自給自足的農村經濟，在某些方面滲入了商品貨幣經濟關係。但是，由於元帝集中控制了大量的手工業工匠，經營日用工藝品的生產，官營手工業特別發達，對民間手工業則有一定的限制。

由于蒙古對商品交換依賴較大，同時受儒家輕商思想較少，故元朝比較提倡商業，使得商品經濟十分繁榮，使其成為當時世界上相當富庶的國家。而元朝的首都大都，也成為當時聞名世界的商業中心。為了適應商品交換，元朝建立起世界上最早的完全的紙幣流通制度，是中國曆史上第一個完全以紙幣作為流通貨幣的朝代，然而因濫發紙幣也造成惡性通貨膨脹。商品交流也促進了元代交通業的發展，改善了陸路、漕運，內河與海路交通。

農業

農業方面，宋真宗時推行的占城稻在元朝時已經推廣到全國各地。農業生產繼續發展，1329年，南糧北運多達三百五十多萬石，說明糧食生產的豐富。這一階段，經濟作物也有較大發展，茶葉、棉花與甘蔗是重要的經濟作物。江南地區早在南宋時已盛產棉花，北方陝甘一帶又從西域傳來了新的棉種。1289年元廷設置了浙東、江東、江西、湖廣、福建等省木棉提舉司，年征木棉布十萬匹。1296年複定江南夏稅折征木棉等物，反映出棉花種植的普遍及棉紡織業的發達。元朝水利設施以華中、華南地區比較發達。元初曾設立了都水監和河渠司，專掌水利，逐步修複了前代的水利工程。陝西三白渠工程到元朝後期仍可溉田七萬餘頃。所修複的浙江海塘，對保護農業生產也起了較大作用。元朝農業技術繼承宋朝，南方人民曾採用了圩田、櫃田、架田、塗田、沙田、梯田等擴大耕地的種植方法，對於生產工具又有改進。關于元朝的農具，在王禎的《農書》中有不少詳細的敘述。

元世祖為了清查土地徵收賦稅曾實行過土地所有者自報田地的經理法，由於未能確實執行，1314年元仁宗又派大臣往江浙、江西、河南三地實施經理法，但實施結果仍然弊端極多，人民紛起反抗，以至仁宗不得不下詔免三省自實田租二年，最後不了了之。

元朝土地仍可分為官田和私田兩種。官田主要來自宋、金的官田，兩朝皇親國戚、權貴、豪右的土地，掠奪的民田，以及經過長期戰亂所形成的無主荒地。元廷把所掌握的官田一部分作為屯田，一部分賞賜王公貴族和寺院僧侶，餘下的則由政府直接招民耕種，收取地租。其屯田的數量極大，遍及全國，其中以河北、河南兩省最多。其中民屯是役使漢人屯墾收租，軍屯則分給各軍戶，強迫相當于奴隸的「驅丁」耕種。私田是蒙古貴族和漢族地主的占地以及少量自耕農所有的田地。元朝以大量土地賞賜寺院，例如1316年元仁宗曾賜給上都開元寺江浙田二百頃、華嚴寺百頃。元朝也有一定數量的自耕農，然而地位很低下，生活十分困苦。

畜牧業

元朝的畜牧政策以開闢牧場，擴大牲畜的牧養繁殖為主，尤其是孳息馬群。畜牧業發展趨勢不穩定，由元世祖時的盛況漸漸趨向衰退，到了元惠宗時，畜牧業的衰敗更為嚴重，其原因最大的是自然災害。元朝完善了養馬的管道，設立太僕寺、尚乘寺、群牧都轉運司和買馬制度等制度。元朝在全國設立了14個官馬道，所有水草豐美的地方都用來牧放馬群，自上都、大都以及玉你伯牙、折連怯呆兒，周回萬里，無非牧地。元朝牧場廣闊，西抵流沙，北際沙漠，東及遼海，凡屬地氣高寒，水甘草美，無非牧養之地。當時，大漠南北和西南地區的優良牧場，廬帳而居，隨水草畜牧。江南和遼東諸處亦散滿了牧場，早已打破了國馬牧於北方，往年無飼於南者的界線。內地各郡縣亦有牧場。除作為官田者以外，這些牧場的部分地段往往由奪取民田而得。

牧場分為官牧場與私人牧場。官牧場是12世紀形成的大畜群所有制的高度發展形態，也是大汗和各級蒙古貴族的財產。大汗和貴族們通過戰爭掠奪，對所屬牧民徵收貢賦，收買和沒收所謂無主牲畜等方式進行大規模的畜牧業生產。元朝諸王分地都有王府的私有牧場，安西王忙哥剌，佔領大量田地進行牧馬，又擴占旁近世業民田30萬頃為牧場。雲南王忽哥赤的王府畜馬繁多，悉縱之郊，敗民禾稼，而牧人又在農家宿食，室無寧居。1331年以河間路清池、南皮縣牧地賜斡羅思駐冬。元世祖時，東平布衣趙天麟上《太平金鏡策》，云：今王公大人之家，或占民田近於千頃，不耕不稼，謂之草場，專放孳畜。可見，當時蒙古貴族的私人牧場所佔面積之大。

嶺北行省作為元朝皇室的祖宗根本之地，為了維護諸王、貴族的利益和保持國族的強盛，元帝對這個地區給予了特別的關注。畜牧業是嶺北行省的主要經濟生產部門，遇有自然災害發生，元朝就從中原調撥大量糧食、布帛進行賑濟，或賜銀、鈔，或購買羊馬分給災民；其災民，也常由元廷發給資糧，遣送回居本部。元帝對諸王、公主、后妃、勛臣給予巨額賞賜，其目的在于鞏固貴族、官僚集團之間的團結，以維持自己的皇權統治。皇帝對蒙古本土的巨額賞賜，無形中是對這一地區畜牧業生產的投資。

手工業

元朝手工業生產也有些進步，絲織業的發展以南方為主，長江下游的絹，在產量上居於首位，超過了黃河流域。元朝的加金絲織物稱為「納石矢」金錦，當時的織金錦包括兩大類：一類是用片金法織成的，用這種方法織成的金錦，金光奪目。另一類是用圓金法織成的，牢固耐用，但其金光色彩比較暗淡。棉紡織業到宋末元初起了變化，棉花由西北和東南兩路迅速傳入長江中下游平原和關中平原。加上元朝在五個省區設置了木棉提舉司，「責民歲輸木綿（棉）十萬匹」，可見長江流域的棉布產量已相當可觀。但當時由于工具簡陋，技術低下，成品尚比較粗糙。1295年前後，婦女黃道婆把海南島黎族的紡織技術帶到松江府的烏泥涇，提升了紡織技術，被尊稱為黃娘娘。

元朝的瓷器在宋代的基礎上又有進步，著名的青花瓷就是元代的新產品。青花瓷器，造型優美，色彩清新，有很高的藝術價值。造船業十分發達，還有起碇用的輪車，並已經使用羅盤針導航。元朝的印刷技術，又比宋朝更有進步。活字印刷術不斷改進，陸續發明了錫活字和木活字，並用來排印蒙文和漢文書籍。自1276年以來，已使用小塊銅版鑄印小型的蒙文和漢文印刷品，如紙幣「至元通行寶鈔」。套色版印刷術應用于刻書，如中興路刊印的無聞和尚注《金剛經》。1298年王禎用木活字來印他所纂修的《大德旌德縣誌》，不到一月百部齊成，其效率很高。他又發明了轉輪排字架，使用簡單的機械，提高排字的效率。最後他總結成《造活字印書法》。

元朝行會組織還有應付官府需索、維護同業利益的作用，其組織的內部還更日趨周密。在元朝，「和雇」及「和買」，名義上是給價的，實際上卻給價很少，常成為非法需索。雖然各行會多由豪商把持，對中小戶進行剝削，但是由于官府科索繁重，同業需要共同來應付官府的需求，同時官府也要利用行會來控制手工業的各個行業。

商業

元朝透過專賣政策控制鹽、酒、茶、農具、竹木等一切日用必需品的貿易，影響國內商業的發展。可是元朝幅員廣闊，交通發達，所以往往鼓勵對外貿易政策，因而終元之世對外貿易頗為繁盛。元朝的對外貿易主要採取官營政策，並禁止漢人往海外經商。但實際上私商入海貿易的仍然很多，政府始終無法禁絕。元代海外貿易輸出入商品，大體上與宋代相同。但奴隸貿易卻有相當規模，販運進口的有「黑廝」和「高麗奴」。

在生產發展的基礎上，物資交流頻繁，從而促進了商業城市的發展。元朝時臨安仍改名杭州，其繁榮並不因南宋覆滅而衰退多少。由于北方人紛紛南遷，城廂內外人口更加稠密，商業繁榮。杭州是江浙行省的省會，地位重要，水陸交通便利，驛站最多，不但是南方國內商業中心，也是對外貿易的重要港口之一。江浙行中書省居各行中書省徵收的商稅和酒醋課的第一位，城內中外商民薈萃，住有不少埃及人和突厥人，還有古印度等國富商所建的大廈。泉州在宋元時期是東方第一大港，貨物的運輸量十分巨大，泉州的稅收僅次於前朝首都杭州。然而在元朝末年色目軍爆發亦思巴奚兵亂，導致外僑大量撤離，對外貿易中斷而衰。大都（今北京）是元朝的首都，在原來中都城的東北方建立新城，規模宏大，是全國政治、軍事中心，也是陸路對外貿易和國內商業中心。達官貴人、富商大賈多在此聚居，人口稠密，城廂內外街道縱橫，商肆櫛比鱗次，工商業很繁榮，是世界聞名的大城市。州縣以上的城市，商業比較發達的還有：

• 長江下游和蘇浙閩等地區的建康（南京）、平江（蘇州）、揚州、鎮江、吳江、吳興、紹興、衢州、福州等城市；

• 長江中游地區的荊南、沙市、漢陽、襄陽、黃池、太平州、江州、隆興等城市；

• 長江上游川蜀地區的成都、敘州、遂寧等城市；

• 沿海對外貿易城市的廣州、泉州、明州、秀州、溫州和江陰等等。

貨幣制度

元朝為了加強對經濟的統制，以使用紙幣為主，鑄造錢幣比其他朝代為少。1260年元世祖發行了以絲為本位的寶鈔與以白銀或金為本位的中統鈔（中統鈔沒有設定流通期限），鈔幣持有者可以按照法令比價兌換銀或金，雖然其後曾一度廢除，但持續使用到元朝末期，成為元朝貨幣的核心的紙幣。全國各路都設有兌換的機關——「平準庫」。兌換基金充足，准許兌現,兌換的時候徵收兩到三分的手續費（工墨鈔）。1276年由於元廷大肆搜括，增發紙幣，並將各路準備金銀運往大都，引起物價上漲，紙鈔貶值。1280年，紙幣貶值成為原來的十分之一。1287年物價已經「相去幾十餘倍」了。為了穩定物價，元廷發行「至元寶鈔」和中統鈔並行。1350年元惠宗又發行「至正寶鈔」，發行不久，貶值嚴重，物價暴漲。事實上，民間的日常交易、借貸、商品標價等多有用銀的。這時使用的白銀，主要是銀錠和元寶。

賦稅與徭役

元代的賦稅依舊包括田賦、開採礦產的歲課、鹽稅等。但由於元代商業發達，商稅亦成為了政府的重要收入之一

關於元朝的田賦，《元史·食貨志一》說：「元之取民，大率以唐為法。其取於內郡者曰丁稅，曰地稅，此仿唐之租庸調也；取於江南者曰秋稅，曰夏稅，此仿唐之兩稅也。」這段話雖然並不確切，但至少說明了南北田賦制度的差異。中原田賦的徵收大概始於耶律楚材輔政以後。在這之前蒙古帝國根本沒有賦稅之制。元朝行於江南的田賦制度基本上沿用了宋代的兩稅制。

元朝人民還有一項很沉重的財政負擔，即科差，是徭役向賦稅轉化的一種形式。

文化

元朝統治中原，對中原傳統文化的影響大過對社會經濟的影響。像遼朝、金朝與西夏等征服王朝，他們為了提升本國文化，積極的吸收中華文化，進而逐漸漢化，然而蒙元對漢文化卻不甚積極。他們主要是為了維護本身文化，同時採用西亞文化與漢文化，並且提倡蒙古至上主義，來防止被漢化。例如他們提倡藏傳佛教高過於中原的佛教與道教，在政治上大量使用色目人，儒者的地位下降以及長時間沒有舉辦科舉。由於士大夫文化式微，意味宋朝的傳統社會秩序已經崩潰。這使得在士大夫文化低下，屬於中下層的的庶民文化迅速的抬頭。這個現象在政治方面是重用胥吏，在藝術與文學方面則是發展以庶民為對象的戲劇與藝能，其中以元曲最為興盛。

思想

元朝的思想上也是兼收並用的，他們對各種思想幾乎一視同仁，都加以承認與提倡，「三教九流，莫不崇奉」。然而元廷在一定程度上尊重儒學，特別是於宋朝形成的理學，更是尊為官學，使得理學得以北傳。元仁宗初年恢復科舉，史稱延祐復科，在「明經」、「經疑」和「經義」的考試都規定用南宋儒者朱熹等人的注釋，影響後來明朝的科舉考試皆採用朱熹注釋。理學在元朝還有一些變化，南宋時期即有調和程朱理學的朱熹與心學的陸九齡等兩家學派的思想，元代理學家大多捨棄兩派其短而綜匯所長，最後「合會朱陸」成為元代理學的重要特點。當時有名的理學家有黃震、許衡與劉因與調和朱陸學的吳澄、鄭玉與趙偕。朱學的後繼者為了配合元帝的需求，更注重在程朱理學的倫理道德學說，其道德蒙昧主義的特徵日趨明顯。從而把注意力由學問思變的道問學轉向對道德實踐的尊德性的重視，這也促成朱、陸思想的合流。元代理學的發展，也為明朝朱學與陽明心學的崛起提供某些思想的開端。

江南統一後，元朝崇尚儒學的政策有新發展，漢蒙官員上書建議興舉和重視學校，於是元政府在推廣有關儒學教育政策的同時，亦更加注意優待和勉勵儒學。從元世祖到元世宗時期，元朝的重視、勉勵學改的政策已經完備。元成宗以後，這些政策基本上得到歷代皇帝的實行。例如為了維護儒學的正常運行，元世祖於至元二十五年下聖旨：「（江淮等處）仍禁約使臣人等勿得於廟學安下，非禮騷擾」，此後元政府兩次重申這一禁令，對元朝儒學教育的正常運作起到了保護作用。另外，元朝亦實行宋朝以來的學田政策，允許學校支配學田收入。元朝政府還將儒學推廣至邊遠地區，在雲南、兩廣、海南、西部地區如原西夏政權控制的範圍和原宋朝和吐蕃的邊境地區、北部和東北地區（嶺北行省和遼陽行省）建立、推廣和發展儒學。元朝的統一對儒學教育向中國邊遠地區的擴散作出了推動作用，並且取得了明顯的成績。

由於元朝由蒙古人所統治，漢族士大夫基於異族統治的考量，在蒙元初期大多分成合作派與抵抗派。合作一派是華北儒者如耶律楚材、楊奐、郝經與許衡等人。他們主張與蒙古統治者和平共存，認為華、夷並非固定不變，如果夷而進於「中國」，則「中國」之。如果蒙古統治者有德行，也可以完全入主中原。他們提倡安定社會，保護百姓，將中華的典章制度帶進蒙元，以教感化蒙古人。另一派是江南南宋遺民的儒者如謝訪、鄭思肖、王應麟、胡三省、鄧牧、馬端臨等人。他們緬懷南宋故國，為了消極抵抗元廷，採取隱遁鄉里，終生不願意出仕的方式。並且以著述書籍為業，將思想化為書中主旨。到元朝後期，由於元仁宗實行延祐復科，恢復科舉，及第者都感謝天子的恩寵，紛紛願意為元廷解憂。元朝後期國勢大墬，政治腐敗、財政困難，使得當時士大夫如趙天麟、鄭介夫、張養皓與劉基等人紛紛提出各種政治主張，或從弊端中總結經驗教訓。他們大多提倡勤政愛民、廉潔公正、任用賢才等措施。元末民變的爆發使得南方有不少士大夫出於衛身、保鄉、勤王之目的，紛紛組織義兵護國，有些士大夫甚至捨身殉國。在明朝建立後，部分元朝遺老紛紛歸隱不出。

文學、史學與語文

元朝文學以元曲與小說為主，對於史學研究也十分興盛。相對的元朝的詩詞成就較少，內容比較貧乏，但文以虞集為長，詩以劉因為著。明朝王世貞說「元無文」，但敘事文學如戲曲、小說第一次有主導地位。元朝使華北誕生元曲，江南則出現以浙江為中心的文人階層，孕育出《三國演義》和《水滸傳》等長篇小說，自由奔放的文人如楊維楨、倪瓚等人，在城市發放出市民文化的花朵。

元曲分成散曲與雜劇，散曲具有詩獨立生命，雜劇則具有戲劇的獨立生命。當時城市經濟興盛，元廷不重視中國文學與科舉，當時社會提倡歌舞戲曲作為大眾的娛樂品，這些都使宋、金以來的戲曲昇華為元曲。散曲是元代的新體詩，也是元代一種新的韻文形式，以抒情為主，主要給舞台上清唱的流行歌曲，可以單獨唱也可以融入歌劇內，與唐宋詩詞關係密切。；雜劇是元代的歌劇，產生於金末元初，發展和興盛於元代至元大德年間。根據《太和正音譜》中所記，大約有五百三十五本，創作十分巨大而輝煌。元朝後期，雜劇創作中心逐步南移，加強與溫州發揚的南戲的交流，到元末成為傳奇，明清時發展出崑劇和粵劇。當時散曲四大名家有關漢卿、馬致遠、張可久與喬吉，有名的《南呂‧一枝花》（《不伏老》）反映作者樂觀和頑強精神；《恁闌人》（《江夜》）追求文字技巧，脫離散曲特有風格；描寫景物的《水仙子》（《重觀瀑布》）雅俗兼備，以出奇制勝；其中描寫自然景物的曲子《天淨沙》（《秋思》）刻劃出一幅秋郊夕照圖，情景交融，色彩鮮明，被稱為「秋思之祖」。雜劇五大名家除了關漢卿與馬致遠之外，還有白樸、王實甫與鄭光祖，有名的作品有《竇娥冤》、《拜月亭》、《漢宮秋》、《梧桐雨》、《西廂記》與《倩女離魂》，主要表現社會與生活情況、歌頌歷史人物與事件，強調人物的情感。元曲的興盛，最後成為與漢賦、唐詩、宋詞並稱的中國優秀文學遺產。

元朝長篇小說源自戲曲說白的平話，這些話本最後寫成書的即是小說，以《三國演義》和《水滸傳》最有名，與明朝的《西遊記》、清朝的《紅樓夢

》合稱中國古典四大文學名著。《三國演義》的作者是羅貫中，敘述三國時期曹操、劉備與諸葛亮等人物，小說通篇精巧敘述謀略，雖與史實多有出入，仍譽之「中國謀略全書」；《水滸傳》一般認為是施耐庵所著，而羅貫中負責整理。其內容講述梁山泊以宋江為首的綠林好漢，由被迫落草，發展壯大，直至受到朝廷招安。現存宋元平話共約八種，包括《大唐三藏取經詩話》。

元代的歷史研究也十分興盛。胡三省潛心研究歷史巨著《資治通鑑》，1286年《資治通鑒音注》全部成編，公認是對《資治通鑑》的注釋最佳者。馬端臨在歷史文獻的收集和整理方面有很深的造詣，著有《文獻通考》，記載上古至宋寧宗嘉定末年曆代典章制度的政書，十通之一。蘇天爵、歐陽玄、虞集與趙世延一同編寫的《經世大典》。脫脫主編，由歐陽玄等人編寫《遼史》、《宋史》與《金史》。元朝還有記述大蒙古國立國至窩闊台汗時期的《蒙古秘史》。

元朝的文字與語言方面，一般是通用蒙古語與漢語，然而一些說法認為入聲字最早被認為在元朝官話消失。文字通用漢文與蒙古的八思巴字。八思巴文是元世祖時由國師八思巴根據當時的吐蕃文字而制定的一種文字，用以取代標音不夠準確的粟特語蒙古文字。然而此時橫跨歐亞的蒙古帝國已經析為元朝和四大汗國：蒙古欽察汗國、察合台汗國、窩闊台汗國、伊兒汗國，因此八思巴文一直只有元朝採用，並主要用作為漢字標音符號。元朝滅亡後，仍然推行於北元，到了16世紀末期，蒙古高原的蒙古人受其他蒙古民族同化，轉而重新採用蒙古文字。

宗教

元朝與四大汗國（欽察汗國、察合台汗國、窩闊台汗國、伊兒汗國）橫跨歐亞大陸，幅員遼闊，其疆土內的種族也十分繁多，這些都使得元朝的宗教呈現多元化，各類佛教（含漢傳佛教與藏傳佛教）、道教、白蓮教等都取得了較大的發展；東西方的商旅、教士亦來往頻繁，自西方傳來的伊斯蘭教、基督教（含景教和天主教）與猶太教的影響力也逐漸增加。由于元朝對境內各種宗教基本採取自由放任的態度，對信仰宗教的問題採取兼容並包的政策，甚且優容禮遇之，這種環境自然有利於宗教的傳播與發展。元朝僧人有免稅免役特權，致使一些不法之徒投機為僧，甚至幹預訴訟，橫行鄉里，成為元代的一個社會問題。不過，元世祖曾在禮節上歧視伊斯蘭教，例如不尊重其宰羊方法，伊斯蘭教徒被逼吃死肉，此法令亦適用於基督教徒。元朝對宗教管制較為寬鬆，使得民間如白蓮教、明教等藉此建立秘密組織，進行抗元起事。

各類佛教中以藏傳佛教最為興盛. 藏傳佛教約唐中期自吐蕃傳入唐朝，專以祈禱禁咒為事。漢傳佛教在唐武宗時遭受打擊，宋朝時只剩禪宗慢慢恢復，然敵不過道教與理學。藏傳佛教中，薩迦派（花教）自窩闊台汗至元世祖期間逐漸獲得蒙元朝廷的尊重。忽必烈早在攻擊吐蕃時即於薩迦派的喇嘛扮底達講和，而後扮底達的繼承人八思巴被元世祖奉為國師（後升為帝師），賜玉印，任中原法王，命統天下佛教，並兼任總制院（後改名為宣政院）使來管理吐蕃（今西藏）事務，這是以宗教領袖統治西藏地區之始。八思巴還為元朝建立八思巴文。藏傳佛教在元朝皇帝的推崇下，在社會與政治上均有極高的地位。諸位元朝皇帝均受藏傳佛教的戒律，藏傳佛教也逐漸推廣到蒙古各部。然而皇室用於佛事之錢要占國家財政支出一半（皇帝即位前要灌頂），寺院也擁有龐大的產業，部分喇嘛也驕縱不法，危害社會。例如元世祖時，江南佛教總統喇嘛楊璉真珈喜好掘墓，曾挖掘宋朝諸陵與諸大臣墳墓百餘所；包庇平民不輸租賦者，達兩萬三千戶，其餘如奪人產業，姦污婦女等類之事，更為常見。

道教自宋朝即十分興盛，金朝與南宋時期即有全真教、太一教與大道教三派。全真教由王喆創立，主張修孝僅存一之德，然後學道。成吉思汗於西征時邀請全真教道士丘處機西行中亞，十分禮遇他，並且他掌管天下道教。丘處機後來與其弟子李志常寫成《長春真人西遊記》一書，具有重要的史料價值。大道教主張苦節危行，不妄取於人，不苟奢於自，從創教教主劉德仁五傳至酈希誠，被蒙哥冊封為太玄真人，掌管教務。太一教以傳授太一三元法籙之術為主，從創教教主蕭抱珍五傳至李居壽時，元世祖興建太一宮，並讓他居之，獲得太一掌教宗師印。然而元朝以藏傳佛教為國教，元世祖曾命燒去一些「捏合不實」的道經如《老子化胡經》等，然而仍然冊封各派宗師以安撫之。

元朝的基督教（即天主教）稱為也里可溫教，唐朝時基督教的分支景教（聶斯脫里派）因唐武宗的禁止而式微，到元朝時基督教再度傳入中國。當蒙古人數度西征時，歐洲頻繁發動數次十字軍東征，征伐西亞的伊斯蘭教徒，因此歐洲人有意和蒙古結盟，共抗伊斯蘭教徒。貴由汗時，教宗曾派使者到和林見貴由汗；元世祖時聖座又派方濟各會教主由海道抵大都，元世祖同意其傳教，而景教教徒分布在揚州、杭州、鎮江與泉州等地，最後分布到華北、西北與西南。然而基督教時常與佛道兩教衝突，方聶兩派也自相牽制。元朝晚期，教宗有意派主教來華整頓教務，然而主事者漠不關心，元朝滅亡後東西交通斷絕，基督教再度式微。猶太教稱為術忽或主吾，猶太人大多定居開封、杭州、大都與和林等城市。由於猶太商人擅長理財，元廷視為財政來源之一。

元朝的伊斯蘭教（又稱回教）稱為木速蠻教，也是於唐武宗後式微於中國，而後流行於西域中亞各國如畏吾兒、花剌子模等國。成吉思汗西征時降服許多西域回教國家，使得伊斯蘭教徒仕於蒙古朝廷甚多。由於色目人（即西域各族）擅長理財，元世祖統一中國後更任用色目人，給予極大的權力。這些都使得伊斯蘭教盛行於中國西部、雲南地區等，部分色目商人也有定居於沿海廣州、泉州、杭州與揚州等地區，漸漸形成大分散、小集中的特色，幾乎覆蓋全國。1357年至1366年間更在福建發生色目軍亂，史稱亦思巴奚兵亂。當時蒙古王公大臣也有信奉伊斯蘭教，其中安西王阿難答更是虔誠的伊斯蘭教徒。他於元成宗駕崩後擔任監國，並且很有機會繼承為皇帝。如果他擔任皇帝，可能使元朝國教改為伊斯蘭教。

藝術

元朝經濟發達，城市文化興起，又因為交通發達，東西文化交流，使得元朝藝術呈現多元化。繪畫方面，文人畫成為主流，著重個人及書法表現，風格與元代強調裝飾的宮廷繪畫迥然不同。元初趙孟頫、高克恭等人提倡復古，回歸唐朝和北宋的風格，並且將書法入畫，創造出重氣韻、輕格律，注重主觀抒情的元畫風格。元朝中晚期以黃公望、王蒙、倪瓚、吳鎮等元代四大家為主，其中又以黃公望為冠。他們寄託清高人格的理念於繪畫上，以隱逸山水與梅、蘭、竹、菊、松、石等為象徵。黃公望創始「淺降山水」，先以水墨鉤勒皴染為基礎，加上以赭石為主色的淡彩山水畫。由於元人以較乾的筆法在紙上作畫，這不同於宋人繪於絹上。山水畫除了皴法以外，增多擦的效果，猶如中國書法一樣。為了使畫面的上方可以題上詩句，所以故意留出一角，題上自己作的詩句，使詩、書、畫三者合成一體，影響明清國畫至今。元代的花鳥，以錢選最為有名，他學習宋人趙昌的畫風，具有宋人厚重典雅的趣味。其他如趙孟、趙雍、陳琳與劉貫道等均以兼善花鳥出名。

元朝書法的核心人物是趙孟頫，他的書法深受東晉書法家王羲之的影響，所創立的楷書趙體與唐楷之歐體、顏體與柳體並稱四體，成為後代規摹的主要書體，表現為「溫潤閒雅」「秀研飄逸「的風格面貌。審美觀趨向飄逸的超然之態獲得一種精神解脫有一定聯繫。鮮于樞與趙孟頫齊名，但影響略小，尤其擅長行、草書。與他們同時代的書法家鄧文原則擅長章草，是研習這種古書體不多見的名家之一。康里巙巙稍晚于趙孟頫，也以草書名世，是少數民族書法家的代表人物。 　

元朝的工藝美術十分發達，在傳統的工藝美術上吸收了藏族等其他民族文化，對元代工藝美術帶來了新的發展。官辦手工業人材薈萃，技藝精湛，生產出了大量高級手工藝品和消費品，最明顯的如陶瓷工藝、織繡工藝等。元朝瓷器及漆器等實用藝術常有創新。元朝是景德鎮真正馳名的時期，最著名的瓷器即為青花瓷和釉里紅。受到中東文化影響，瓷器有豐富的藍白色裝飾，中東商人也會訂製大量的龍泉青瓷。元朝也完成許多佛教雕刻，其中，密宗多手佛像顯示蒙古人對尼泊爾、西藏地區藏傳佛教藝術的愛好。銀器工藝家朱碧山知名的銀器的雕造技術也是在此時發展。此外元代也製作生產雕漆工藝品。

科技

由於元朝朝廷與社會提倡思想多元，經濟發達提供可靠的物質保證，交通發達與中外交往空前活躍又為吸收世界各地科技創造條件，使得科學技術有很高的成就，主要表現在天文歷法、數學、農牧業、醫藥學與地理學等方面。中國古代的發明印刷術及火藥等出現了印刷活字盤與火銃等技術，西傳西方後促進歐洲國家的進步。波斯、阿拉伯素稱發達的天文、醫學等成就，也在元朝被大量傳至中國。由於東西貿易的興旺，西域的玉石、紡織品、食品及珍禽異獸等也源源不斷輸入中國。中外的科技交流，促進了各自的科技進步，元朝正好為這種交流提供了比以前歷代都優越的條件。

元朝在天文歷法方面十分發達，元世祖邀請阿拉伯的天文學家來華，吸收了阿拉伯天文學的技術，並且先後在上都、大都、登封等處興建天文臺與回回司天臺，設立了遠達極北南海的27處天文觀測站，在測定黃道和恆星觀測方面取得了遠超前代的突出成就。元朝有名的天文學家有郭守敬、王恂、耶律楚材、紮馬魯丁等人。耶律楚材曾編訂有《西征庚午元歷》，1267年扎馬魯丁撰進《萬年曆》，郭守敬等人修改曆法，以近世截元法主持編訂了《授時歷》，《授時歷》於1280年頒行，延用了400多年，是人類歷法史上的一大進步。扎馬魯丁與後來的郭守敬研製出了簡儀、仰儀、圭表、景符、闚幾、正方案、候極儀、立運儀、證理儀、定時儀、日月食儀等十幾種天文儀器，當時在天文台里工作的還有阿拉伯天文學家可馬剌丁、苫思丁等人。回回司天台一直存在到元末明初，仍由回回司天監黑的兒、阿都剌、司天監丞迭里月實等修定歷數。元朝數學湧現出了一批傑出數學家及其著作。如李冶及其《測圓海鏡》、《益古演段》；朱世傑及其《算學啟蒙》、《四元玉鑒》；李冶提出的天元術（即立方程的方法）及朱世傑提出的四元術（即多元高次聯立方程的解法），是具有世界性影響的新成就。算盤在元代也初具規模。

元代的農業技術主要可見於《農桑輯要》、《王禎農書》與《農桑衣食撮要》等三部書。《農桑輯要》由元廷主持編纂，全書分七卷十篇，對元及其以前的作物栽培、牲畜飼養做了總結，並保存了大量古農書資料，對推廣農牧業技術，指導農牧業生產有重要作用。《農書》為著名農學家王禎所著，，全書分「農桑通訣」、「百穀譜」、「農器圖譜」三大部分，總結了古代的農業生產經驗，又介紹了當時的新技術，是繼北魏賈思勰的《齊民要術》之後又一部重要的農業科學著作。王禎認為要不違農時、適時播種、因地制宜、及時施肥、興修水利才是取得農業豐收的保證，其中關於棉桑種植具有現實意義。《農桑衣食撮要》為魯明善所著，此書重在實用，按月記載農事活動，特別還涉及到遊牧生產，可補《農桑輯要》及其它古農書之不足。

醫藥學方面，史稱金元四大家中有兩位生活在蒙元時期。李杲師承張元素，強調補脾胃，創立了「補土派」，著有《脾胃論》、《傷寒會要》等。朱震亨拜羅知悌為師，發展劉完素火熱學說，主張以補陰為主，多用滋陰降火之劑，後人稱其為「滋陰派」，著有《格致余論》、《局方發揮》、《傷寒辨疑》等書。外科骨傷科方面成就更為突出，危亦林在麻醉與骨折復位手術上有創新。薩德彌實的《瑞竹堂經驗方》很註意北方的寒冷氣候及蒙古族遊牧生活實際，有不少治療骨傷及風寒濕痺的方劑，有的時至今日仍為醫家所使用。元廷太醫忽思慧的《飲膳正要》反映了當時國內各少數民族及中外人民的飲食文化交流。

地理學方面《元一統誌》的編纂、河源的探索、《輿地圖》的問世及大批遊記類著作的出版是其主要成就。《元一統誌》由政府主持，紮馬魯丁、虞應龍具體負責。該書對全國各路府州縣的建置沿革、城郭鄉鎮、山川裏至、土產風俗、古跡人物均有詳細描述，具有較高史料價值。1280年元世祖命女真人都實探求黃河河源，認為星宿海（火敦腦兒）即河源，比較接近實際。潘昂霄還據此撰成《河源誌》。道士朱思本考察了今華北、華東、中南等廣大地區地理形勢，參閱《元一統誌》等地理學著作，以「計裏劃方」法，繪製成《輿地圖》，成為元朝地理學及中國地圖史上劃時代的人物。遊記類地理學著作有耶律楚材《西遊錄》，李志常整理的《長春真人西遊記》，周達觀《真臘風土記》，汪大淵《島夷誌略》等，對元朝國內外的地理地貌、風土人情、貿易來往等頗多描繪。

交通

元代水陸交通的發達，使中外交往範圍空前擴大。當時，東西方使臣、商旅的往來非常方便。元人形容說：「適千裏者如在戶庭，之萬裏者如出鄰家。」同時代的歐洲商人也說，從裏海沿岸城市到中國各地，沿途十分安全。這對發展中外各國之間，國內各民族之間的科技文化交流是十分有利的。元朝與中亞、西亞地區的蒙古勢力保持著來往關係，東西方海運及陸路交通十分暢通，使得西方與元朝中國的交往更加頻繁，技術交流更加迅速。其中主要分陸路和水路兩部分。

陸路有發達的驛道，主要遞送朝廷、郡縣的文書。早在成吉思汗時代，就在西域地區新添了許多驛站。著名的長春真人丘處機在興都庫什山覲見元太祖成吉思汗時，即曾經過這些驛站。元世祖忽必烈統一中原後，在遼闊的國土上，建立了嚴密的驛傳制度（蒙古語「站赤」），使郵驛通信十分有效地發揮效能。元朝的驛路分為三種：一稱帖裏幹道，蒙古語意為車道；二稱木憐道，蒙語意為馬道；三為納憐道，蒙語意為小道。從地區講，帖裏幹和木憐道，多用於嶺北至上都、大都間的郵驛；納憐道僅用於西北軍務，大部分驛站在今甘肅省境內，所以亦稱「甘肅納憐驛」。驛道國內可達吐蕃、大理、天山南北路、蒙古草原，國外遠及波斯、敘利亞、俄羅斯及歐洲其它地區。

水路主要指河運和海運。河運方面元代鑿通了南起鎮江、北達大都的大運河。其中從鎮江至杭州的江南運河段，從淮安經揚州入長江的揚州運河段，大體是隋代運河舊道。元世祖以郭守時擔任都水監，負責修治元大都至通州的運河（其後被忽必烈命名通惠河），再加上修建濟州河、會通河等其它幾項重大工程，這使得連接大都至杭州的京杭大運河全線貫通。海運方面，當時元朝的船隻已經航行于印度洋各地，包括錫蘭（今斯里蘭卡）、印度、波斯灣和阿拉伯半島，甚至達到非洲的索馬里亞。威尼斯人馬可·波羅在忽必烈時期隨從他的父親和叔叔來到中國，在其口述並由魯斯蒂謙記錄的《馬可·波羅遊記》中描繪出元朝中國的繁華景象。

社會

元代社會因思想多元化、商業經濟發達與交通便利，使得元帝國的強盛，是東亞地區的富裕大國，在歐洲人馬可波羅的遊記中，可以看出當時的盛況。隨著理學影響的下降，長期以來壓在人們心頭的封建禮教的磐石隨之鬆動，下層人民和青年男女，蔑視禮教違反封建倫理的舉動越來越多，以至王惲對宣揚禮教的做法，發出了「終無分寸之效者，徒具虛名而已」的慨嘆。孔齊言道：「浙間婦女，雖有夫在，亦如無夫，有子亦如無子，非理處事，習以成風。」。在此說明元朝社會的價值觀念在變化，說明元代文學作品出現眾多違背封建禮教的人物，有著廣泛的社會基礎。

由於元帝對科舉的輕忽，使得大批文化人失去了優越的社會地位和政治上的前途，從而也就擺脫了對政權的依附。他們作為社會的普通成員而存在，通過向社會出賣自己的智力創造謀取生活資料，因而既加強了個人的獨立意識，也加強了同一般民眾尤其是市民階層的聯繫，他們的人生觀念、審美情趣，由此發生了與以往所謂「士人」明顯不同的變化。至於蒙古族的生活方式，原本純粹是遊牧民族，逐水草而居。早期社會中的婚姻以外婚、仇家禁婚、無倫理上限制為主。他們有傳統的婚禮習俗，但在統一中國後，由於蒙漢通婚，以及漢化的影響，部分也採漢禮。

君主年表

Name

In 1271, Kublai Khan imposed the name Great Yuan (大元 Dà Yuán |w = Ta-Yüan), establishing the Yuan dynasty. "Dà Yuán" (大元) is from the clause "大哉乾元" in the Commentaries on the Classic of Changes section regarding the first hexagram Qián (乾). The counterpart in the Mongolian language was Dai Ön Ulus, also rendered as Ikh Yuan Üls or Yekhe Yuan Ulus. In Mongolian, Dai Ön (Middle Mongol transliteration of Chinese "Dà Yuán") was often used in conjunction with the "Yeke Mongghul Ulus" (lit. "Great Mongol State"), which resulted in the form,, meaning "Great Yuan Great Mongol State". As per modern historiographical norm, the "Yuan dynasty" refers exclusively to the realm based in China. However, the Chinese-style dynastic name "Great Yuan" was meant to be applied to the entire Mongol Empire. This usage is seen in the writings, including non-Chinese texts, produced during the time of the Yuan dynasty. In spite of this, "Yuan dynasty" is rarely used in the broad sense of the definition by modern scholars due to the de facto disintegrated nature of the Mongol Empire.

The Yuan dynasty is also known by westerners as the "Mongol dynasty" or "Mongol Dynasty of China", similar to the names "Manchu dynasty" or "Manchu Dynasty of China" which were used by westerners for the Qing dynasty. Furthermore, the Yuan is sometimes known as the "Empire of the Great Khan" or "Khanate of the Great Khan", which particularly appeared on some Yuan maps, since Yuan emperors held the nominal title of Great Khan. Nevertheless, both terms can also refer to the khanate within the Mongol Empire directly ruled by Great Khans before the actual establishment of the Yuan dynasty by Kublai Khan in 1271.

History

Background

Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes of the steppes and became Great Khan in 1206. He and his successors expanded the Mongol empire across Asia. Under the reign of Genghis' third son, Ögedei Khan, the Mongols destroyed the weakened Jin dynasty in 1234, conquering most of northern China. Ögedei offered his nephew Kublai a position in Xingzhou, Hebei. Kublai was unable to read Chinese but had several Han teachers attached to him since his early years by his mother Sorghaghtani. He sought the counsel of Chinese Buddhist and Confucian advisers. Möngke Khan succeeded Ögedei's son, Güyük, as Great Khan in 1251. He granted his brother Kublai control over Mongol held territories in China. Kublai built schools for Confucian scholars, issued paper money, revived Chinese rituals, and endorsed policies that stimulated agricultural and commercial growth. He adopted as his capital city Kaiping in Inner Mongolia, later renamed Shangdu.

Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze, Liu Heima (劉黑馬, aka Liu Ni), and the Khitan Xiao Zhala (蕭札剌) defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan. Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols. There were 4 Han Tumens and 3 Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The three Khitan Generals Shimobeidier, Tabuyir, and Zhongxi, the son of Xiaozhaci commanded the three Khitan Tumens and the four Han Generals Zhang Rou, Yan Shi, Shi Tianze, and Liu Heima commanded the four Han tumens under Ogödei Khan.

Möngke Khan commenced a military campaign against the Chinese Song dynasty in southern China. The Mongol force that invaded southern China was far greater than the force they sent to invade the Middle East in 1256. He died in 1259 without a successor. Kublai returned from fighting the Song in 1260 when he learned that his brother, Ariq Böke, was challenging his claim to the throne. Kublai convened a kurultai in Kaiping that elected him Great Khan. A rival kurultai in Mongolia proclaimed Ariq Böke Great Khan, beginning a civil war. Kublai depended on the cooperation of his Chinese subjects to ensure that his army received ample resources. He bolstered his popularity among his subjects by modeling his government on the bureaucracy of traditional Chinese dynasties and adopting the Chinese era name of Zhongtong. Ariq Böke was hampered by inadequate supplies and surrendered in 1264. All of the three western khanates (Golden Horde, Chagatai Khanate and Ilkhanate) became functionally autonomous, and only the Ilkhans truly recognized Kublai as Great Khan. Civil strife had permanently divided the Mongol Empire.

Rule of Kublai Khan

Early years

Instability troubled the early years of Kublai Khan's reign. Ögedei's grandson Kaidu refused to submit to Kublai and threatened the western frontier of Kublai's domain. The hostile but weakened Song dynasty remained an obstacle in the south. Kublai secured the northeast border in 1259 by installing the hostage prince Wonjong as the ruler of the Kingdom of Goryeo (Korea), making it a Mongol tributary state. Kublai was also threatened by domestic unrest. Li Tan, the son-in-law of a powerful official, instigated a revolt against Mongol rule in 1262. After successfully suppressing the revolt, Kublai curbed the influence of the Han advisers in his court. He feared that his dependence on Chinese officials left him vulnerable to future revolts and defections to the Song.

Kublai's government after 1262 was a compromise between preserving Mongol interests in China and satisfying the demands of his Chinese subjects. He instituted the reforms proposed by his Chinese advisers by centralizing the bureaucracy, expanding the circulation of paper money, and maintaining the traditional monopolies on salt and iron. He restored the Imperial Secretariat and left the local administrative structure of past Chinese dynasties unchanged. However, Kublai rejected plans to revive the Confucian imperial examinations and divided Yuan society into three, later four, classes with the Han occupying the lowest rank. Kublai's Chinese advisers still wielded significant power in the government, but their official rank was nebulous.

Founding the dynasty

Kublai readied the move of the Mongol capital from Karakorum in Mongolia to Khanbaliq in 1264, constructing a new city near the former Jurchen capital Zhongdu, now modern Beijing, in 1266. In 1271, Kublai formally claimed the Mandate of Heaven and declared that 1272 was the first year of the Great Yuan in the style of a traditional Chinese dynasty. The name of the dynasty originated from the I Ching and describes the "origin of the universe" or a "primal force". Kublai proclaimed Khanbaliq the Daidu (大都 Dàdū |l = Great Capital |labels = no) of the dynasty. The era name was changed to Zhiyuan to herald a new era of Chinese history. The adoption of a dynastic name legitimized Mongol rule by integrating the government into the narrative of traditional Chinese political succession. Khublai evoked his public image as a sage emperor by following the rituals of Confucian propriety and ancestor veneration, while simultaneously retaining his roots as a leader from the steppes.

Kublai Khan promoted commercial, scientific, and cultural growth. He supported the merchants of the Silk Road trade network by protecting the Mongol postal system, constructing infrastructure, providing loans that financed trade caravans, and encouraging the circulation of paper banknotes. During the beginning of the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols continued issuing coins; however, under Külüg Khan coins were completely replaced by paper money. It wasn't until the reign of Toghon Temür that the government of the Yuan dynasty would attempt to reintroduce copper coinage for circulation. The Pax Mongolica, Mongol peace, enabled the spread of technologies, commodities, and culture between China and the West. Kublai expanded the Grand Canal from southern China to Daidu in the north. Mongol rule was cosmopolitan under Kublai Khan. He welcomed foreign visitors to his court, such as the Venetian merchant Marco Polo, who wrote the most influential European account of Yuan China. Marco Polo's travels would later inspire many others like Christopher Columbus to chart a passage to the Far East in search of its legendary wealth.

Military conquests and campaigns

After strengthening his government in northern China, Kublai pursued an expansionist policy in line with the tradition of Mongol and Chinese imperialism. He renewed a massive drive against the Song dynasty to the south. Kublai besieged Xiangyang between 1268 and 1273, the last obstacle in his way to capture the rich Yangzi River basin. An unsuccessful naval expedition was undertaken against Japan in 1274. The Duan family ruling the Kingdom of Dali in Yunnan submitted to the Yuan dynasty as vassals and were allowed to keep their throne, militarily assisting the Yuan dynasty against the Song dynasty in southern China. The Duan family still ruled Dali relatively independently during the Yuan dynasty. The Tusi chieftains and local tribe leaders and kingdoms in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan submitted to Yuan rule and were allowed to keep their titles. The Han Chinese Yang family ruling the Chiefdom of Bozhou which was recognized by the Song dynasty and Tang dynasty also received recognition by the Mongols in the Yuan dynasty and later by the Ming dynasty. The Luo clan in Shuixi led by Ahua were recognized by the Yuan emperors, as they were by the Song emperors when led by Pugui and Tang emperors when led by Apei. They descended from the Shu Han era king Huoji who helped Zhuge Liang against Meng Huo. They were also recognized by the Ming dynasty.

Kublai captured the Song capital of Hangzhou in 1276, the wealthiest city of China, after the surrender of the Southern Song Han Chinese Emperor Gong of Song. Emperor Gong of Song (personal name Zhao Xian) was married off to a Mongol princess of the royal Borjigin family of the Yuan dynasty. Song loyalists escaped from the capital and enthroned a young child as Emperor Bing of Song, who was Emperor Gong's younger brother. The Yuan forces commanded by Han Chinese General Zhang Hongfan led a predominantly Han navy to defeat the Song loyalists at the battle of Yamen in 1279. The last Song emperor drowned, bringing an end to the Song dynasty. The conquest of the Song reunited northern and southern China for the first time in three hundred years.

The Yuan dynasty created a "Han Army" out of defected Jin troops and an army of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army".

Kublai's government faced financial difficulties after 1279. Wars and construction projects had drained the Mongol treasury. Efforts to raise and collect tax revenues were plagued by corruption and political scandals. Mishandled military expeditions followed the financial problems. Kublai's second invasion of Japan in 1281 failed because of an inauspicious typhoon. Kublai botched his campaigns against Annam, Champa, and Java, but won a Pyrrhic victory against Burma. The expeditions were hampered by disease, an inhospitable climate, and a tropical terrain unsuitable for the mounted warfare of the Mongols. The Trần dynasty which ruled Annam (Đại Việt) defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288). Annam, Burma, and Champa recognized Mongol hegemony and established tributary relations with the Yuan dynasty.

Internal strife threatened Kublai within his empire. Kublai Khan suppressed rebellions challenging his rule in Tibet and the northeast. His favorite wife died in 1281 and so did his chosen heir in 1285. Kublai grew despondent and retreated from his duties as emperor. He fell ill in 1293, and died on 18 February 1294.

Successors after Kublai

Temür Khan

Following the conquest of Dali in 1253, the former ruling Duan dynasty were appointed as Maharajah. Local chieftains were appointed as Tusi, recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan, Ming, and Qing-era governments, principally in the province of Yunnan. Succession for the Yuan dynasty, however, was an intractable problem, later causing much strife and internal struggle. This emerged as early as the end of Kublai's reign. Kublai originally named his eldest son, Zhenjin, as the Crown Prince, but he died before Kublai in 1285. Thus, Zhenjin's third son, with the support of his mother Kökejin and the minister Bayan, succeeded the throne and ruled as Temür Khan, or Emperor Chengzong, from 1294 to 1307. Temür Khan decided to maintain and continue much of the work begun by his grandfather. He also made peace with the western Mongol khanates as well as neighboring countries such as Vietnam, which recognized his nominal suzerainty and paid tributes for a few decades. However, the corruption in the Yuan dynasty began during the reign of Temür Khan.

Külüg Khan

Külüg Khan (Emperor Wuzong) came to the throne after the death of Temür Khan. Unlike his predecessor, he did not continue Kublai's work, largely rejecting his objectives. Most significantly he introduced a policy called "New Deals", focused on monetary reforms. During his short reign (1307–11), the government fell into financial difficulties, partly due to bad decisions made by Külüg. By the time he died, China was in severe debt and the Yuan court faced popular discontent.

Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan

The fourth Yuan emperor, Buyantu Khan (born Ayurbarwada), was a competent emperor. He was the first Yuan emperor to actively support and adopt mainstream Chinese culture after the reign of Kublai, to the discontent of some Mongol elite. He had been mentored by Li Meng, a Confucian academic. He made many reforms, including the liquidation of the Department of State Affairs, which resulted in the execution of five of the highest-ranking officials. Starting in 1313 the traditional imperial examinations were reintroduced for prospective officials, testing their knowledge on significant historical works. Also, he codified much of the law, as well as publishing or translating a number of Chinese books and works.

Gegeen Khan and Yesün Temür

Emperor Gegeen Khan, Ayurbarwada's son and successor, ruled for only two years, from 1321 to 1323. He continued his father's policies to reform the government based on the Confucian principles, with the help of his newly appointed grand chancellor Baiju. During his reign, the Da Yuan Tong Zhi, a huge collection of codes and regulations of the Yuan dynasty begun by his father, was formally promulgated. Gegeen was assassinated in a coup involving five princes from a rival faction, perhaps steppe elite opposed to Confucian reforms. They placed Yesün Temür (or Taidingdi) on the throne, and, after an unsuccessful attempt to calm the princes, he also succumbed to regicide.

Before Yesün Temür's reign, China had been relatively free from popular rebellions after the reign of Kublai. Yuan control, however, began to break down in those regions inhabited by ethnic minorities. The occurrence of these revolts and the subsequent suppression aggravated the financial difficulties of the Yuan government. The government had to adopt some measure to increase revenue, such as selling offices, as well as curtailing its spending on some items.

Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür

When Yesün Temür died in Shangdu in 1328, Tugh Temür was recalled to Khanbaliq by the Qipchaq commander El Temür. He was installed as the emperor (Emperor Wenzong) in Khanbaliq, while Yesün Temür's son Ragibagh succeeded to the throne in Shangdu with the support of Yesün Temür's favorite retainer Dawlat Shah. Gaining support from princes and officers in Northern China and some other parts of the dynasty, Khanbaliq-based Tugh Temür eventually won the civil war against Ragibagh known as the War of the Two Capitals. Afterwards, Tugh Temür abdicated in favour of his brother Kusala, who was backed by Chagatai Khan Eljigidey, and announced Khanbaliq's intent to welcome him. However, Kusala suddenly died only four days after a banquet with Tugh Temür. He was supposedly killed with poison by El Temür, and Tugh Temür then remounted the throne. Tugh Temür also managed to send delegates to the western Mongol khanates such as Golden Horde and Ilkhanate to be accepted as the suzerain of Mongol world. However, he was mainly a puppet of the powerful official El Temür during his latter three-year reign. El Temür purged pro-Kusala officials and brought power to warlords, whose despotic rule clearly marked the decline of the dynasty.

Due to the fact that the bureaucracy was dominated by El Temür, Tugh Temür is known for his cultural contribution instead. He adopted many measures honoring Confucianism and promoting Chinese cultural values. His most concrete effort to patronize Chinese learning was founding the Academy of the Pavilion of the Star of Literature, first established in the spring of 1329 and designed to undertake "a number of tasks relating to the transmission of Confucian high culture to the Mongolian imperial establishment". The academy was responsible for compiling and publishing a number of books, but its most important achievement was its compilation of a vast institutional compendium named Jingshi Dadian. Tugh Temür supported Zhu Xi's Neo-Confucianism and also devoted himself in Buddhism.

Toghon Temür

After the death of Tugh Temür in 1332 and subsequent death of Rinchinbal (Emperor Ningzong) the same year, the 13-year-old Toghon Temür (Emperor Huizong), the last of the nine successors of Kublai Khan, was summoned back from Guangxi and succeeded to the throne. After El Temür's death, Bayan became as powerful an official as El Temür had been in the beginning of his long reign. As Toghon Temür grew, he came to disapprove of Bayan's autocratic rule. In 1340 he allied himself with Bayan's nephew Toqto'a, who was in discord with Bayan, and banished Bayan by coup. With the dismissal of Bayan, Toqto'a seized the power of the court. His first administration clearly exhibited fresh new spirit. He also gave a few early signs of a new and positive direction in central government. One of his successful projects was to finish the long-stalled official histories of the Liao, Jin, and Song dynasties, which were eventually completed in 1345. Yet, Toqto'a resigned his office with the approval of Toghon Temür, marking the end of his first administration, and he was not called back until 1349.

Decline of the empire

The final years of the Yuan dynasty were marked by struggle, famine, and bitterness among the populace. In time, Kublai Khan's successors lost all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia, while the Mongols beyond the Middle Kingdom saw them as too Chinese. Gradually, they lost influence in China as well. The reigns of the later Yuan emperors were short and marked by intrigues and rivalries. Uninterested in administration, they were separated from both the army and the populace, and China was torn by dissension and unrest. Outlaws ravaged the country without interference from the weakening Yuan armies.

From the late 1340s onwards, people in the countryside suffered from frequent natural disasters such as droughts, floods and the resulting famines, and the government's lack of effective policy led to a loss of popular support. In 1351, the Red Turban Rebellion led by Song loyalists started and grew into a nationwide uprising and the Song loyalists established a renewed Song dynasty in 1351 with its capital at Kaifeng. In 1354, when Toghtogha led a large army to crush the Red Turban rebels, Toghon Temür suddenly dismissed him for fear of betrayal. This resulted in Toghon Temür's restoration of power on the one hand and a rapid weakening of the central government on the other. He had no choice but to rely on local warlords' military power, and gradually lost his interest in politics and ceased to intervene in political struggles. He fled north to Shangdu from Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing) in 1368 after the approach of the forces of the Míng dynasty (1368–1644), founded by Zhu Yuanzhang in the south. Zhu Yuanzhang was a former Duke and commander in the army of the Red Turban Song dynasty and assumed power as Emperor after the death of the Red Turban Song Emperor Han Lin'er, who had tried to regain Khanbaliq, which eventually failed, and who died in Yingchang (located in present-day Inner Mongolia) two years later (1370). Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death. Some royal family members still live in Henan today.

The Prince of Liang, Basalawarmi established a separate pocket of resistance to the Ming in Yunnan and Guizhou, but his forces were decisively defeated by the Ming in 1381. By 1387 the remaining Yuan forces in Manchuria under Naghachu had also surrendered to the Ming dynasty. The Yuan remnants retreated to Mongolia after the fall of Yingchang to the Ming in 1370, where the name Great Yuan (大元) was formally carried on, and is known as the Northern Yuan dynasty.

Impact

A rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuan dynasty. The major cultural achievements were the development of drama and the novel and the increased use of the written vernacular. The political unity of China and much of central Asia promoted trade between East and West. The Mongols' extensive West Asian and European contacts produced a fair amount of cultural exchange. The other cultures and peoples in the Mongol World Empire also very much influenced China. It had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia until its decline; the communications between Yuan dynasty and its ally and subordinate in Persia, the Ilkhanate, encouraged this development. Buddhism had a great influence in the Yuan government, and the Tibetan-rite Tantric Buddhism had significantly influenced China during this period. The Muslims of the Yuan dynasty introduced Middle Eastern cartography, astronomy, medicine, clothing, and diet in East Asia. Eastern crops such as carrots, turnips, new varieties of lemons, eggplants, and melons, high-quality granulated sugar, and cotton were all either introduced or successfully popularized during the Yuan dynasty.

Western musical instruments were introduced to enrich Chinese performing arts. From this period dates the conversion to Islam, by Muslims of Central Asia, of growing numbers of Chinese in the northwest and southwest. Nestorianism and Roman Catholicism also enjoyed a period of toleration. Buddhism (especially Tibetan Buddhism) flourished, although Taoism endured certain persecutions in favor of Buddhism from the Yuan government. Confucian governmental practices and examinations based on the Classics, which had fallen into disuse in north China during the period of disunity, were reinstated by the Yuan court, probably in the hope of maintaining order over Han society. Advances were realized in the fields of travel literature, cartography, geography, and scientific education.

Certain Chinese innovations and products, such as purified saltpetre, printing techniques, porcelain, playing cards, and medical literature, were exported to Europe and Western Asia, while the production of thin glass and cloisonné became popular in China. The Yuan exercised a profound influence on the Chinese Ming dynasty. The Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang (1368–97) admired the Mongols' unification of China and adopted its garrison system.

Aside from the ancient Roman embassies, the first recorded travels by Europeans to China and back date from this time. The most famous traveler of the period was the Venetian Marco Polo, whose account of his trip to "Cambaluc," the capital of the Great Khan, and of life there astounded the people of Europe. The account of his travels, Il milione (or, The Million, known in English as the Travels of Marco Polo), appeared about the year 1299. Some doubted the accuracy of Marco Polo's accounts due to the lack of mentioning the Great Wall of China, tea houses, which would have been a prominent sight since Europeans had yet to adopt a tea culture, as well the practice of foot binding by the women in capital of the Great Khan. Recent studies however show that Polo's account is largely accurate and unique.

The Yuan undertook extensive public works. Among Kublai Khan's top engineers and scientists was the astronomer Guo Shoujing, who was tasked with many public works projects and helped the Yuan reform the lunisolar calendar to provide an accuracy of 365.2425 days of the year, which was only 26 seconds off the modern Gregorian calendar's measurement. Road and water communications were reorganized and improved. To provide against possible famines, granaries were ordered built throughout the empire. The city of Beijing was rebuilt with new palace grounds that included artificial lakes, hills and mountains, and parks. During the Yuan period, Beijing became the terminus of the Grand Canal of China, which was completely renovated. These commercially oriented improvements encouraged overland and maritime commerce throughout Asia and facilitated direct Chinese contacts with Europe. Chinese travelers to the West were able to provide assistance in such areas as hydraulic engineering. Contacts with the West also brought the introduction to China of a major food crop, sorghum, along with other foreign food products and methods of preparation.

The Yuan dynasty was the first dynasty founded by non-Han ethnicity that ruled all of China proper. In the historiography of Mongolia, it is generally considered to be the continuation of the Mongol Empire. Mongols are widely known to worship the Eternal Heaven, and according to the traditional Mongolian ideology Yuan is considered to be "the beginning of an infinite number of beings, the foundation of peace and happiness, state power, the dream of many peoples, besides it there is nothing great or precious." In traditional historiography of China, on the other hand, the Yuan dynasty is usually considered to be the legitimate dynasty between the Song dynasty and the Ming dynasty. Note, however, Yuan dynasty is traditionally often extended to cover the Mongol Empire before Kublai Khan's formal establishment of the Yuan in 1271, partly because Kublai officially honored prior rulers of the Mongol Empire as Yuan emperors by conferring them posthumous names and temple names. Despite the traditional historiography as well as the official views (including the government of the Ming dynasty which overthrew the Yuan dynasty), there also exist Chinese people who did not consider the Yuan dynasty as a legitimate dynasty of China, but rather as a period of foreign domination. The latter believe that Hans were treated as second-class citizens, and that China stagnated economically and scientifically.

The dynasty chose white as its imperial color, which corresponds to the Metal element according to the theory of the Five Elements (wuxing). Note that the Metal element does not follow from the Song's dynastic element Five in the creation sequence of the five elements. Instead, it follows from the Jin Dynast's dynastic element Earth. Although the Yuan did not openly announce it, its choice of white as its imperial color suggests that it considered Jin, another conquest dynasty, rather than the Han-Chinese Song dynasty, as its rightful predecessor.

The dragon clothing of Imperial China was used by the Ilkhanids, the Chinese Huangdi (Emperor) title was used by the Ilkhanids due to heavy clout upon the Mongols of the Chinese system of politics. Seals with Chinese characters were created by the Ilkhanids themselves besides the seals they received from the Yuan dynasty which contain references to a Chinese government organization.

Government

The structure of the Yuan government took shape during the reign of Kublai Khan (1260–1294). While some changes took place such as the functions of certain institutions, the essential components of the government bureaucracy remained intact from the beginning to the end of the dynasty in 1368.

The system of bureaucracy created by Kublai Khan reflected various cultures in the empire, including that of the Hans, Khitans, Jurchens, Mongols, and Tibetan Buddhists. While the official terminology of the institutions may indicate the government structure was almost purely that of native Chinese dynasties, the Yuan bureaucracy actually consisted of a mix of elements from different cultures. The Chinese-style elements of the bureaucracy mainly came from the native Tang, Song, as well as Khitan Liao and Jurchen Jin dynasties. Chinese advisers such as Liu Bingzhong and Yao Shu gave strong influence to Kublai's early court, and the central government administration was established within the first decade of Kublai's reign. This government adopted the traditional Chinese tripartite division of authority among civil, military, and censorial offices, including the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) to manage civil affairs, the Privy Council to manage military affairs, and the Censorate to conduct internal surveillance and inspection. The actual functions of both central and local government institutions, however, showed a major overlap between the civil and military jurisdictions, due to the Mongol traditional reliance on military institutions and offices as the core of governance. Nevertheless, such a civilian bureaucracy, with the Central Secretariat as the top institution that was (directly or indirectly) responsible for most other governmental agencies (such as the traditional Chinese-style Six Ministries), was created in China. At various times another central government institution called the Department of State Affairs (Shangshu Sheng) that mainly dealt with finance was established (such as during the reign of Külüg Khan or Emperor Wuzong), but was usually abandoned shortly afterwards.

While the existence of these central government departments and the Six Ministries (which had been introduced since the Sui and Tang dynasties) gave a Sinicized image in the Yuan administration, the actual functions of these ministries also reflected how Mongolian priorities and policies reshaped and redirected those institutions. For example, the authority of the Yuan legal system, the Ministry of Justice, did not extend to legal cases involving Mongols and Semuren, who had separate courts of justice. Cases involving members of more than one ethnic group were decided by a mixed board consisting of Chinese and Mongols. Another example was the insignificance of the Ministry of War compared with native Chinese dynasties, as the real military authority in Yuan times resided in the Privy Council.

The Kingdom of Qocho, Kingdom of Dali, Chiefdom of Bozhou, other Tusi kingdoms and Goryeo were ruled by kings inside the Yuan empire.

Science and technology

Mathematics

Advances in polynomial algebra were made by mathematicians during the Yuan era. The mathematician Zhu Shijie (1249–1314) solved simultaneous equations with up to four unknowns using a rectangular array of coefficients, equivalent to modern matrices. Zhu used a method of elimination to reduce the simultaneous equations to a single equation with only one unknown. His method is described in the Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns, written in 1303. The opening pages contain a diagram of Pascal's triangle. The summation of a finite arithmetic series is also covered in the book.

Guo Shoujing applied mathematics to the construction of calendars. He was one of the first mathematicians in China to work on spherical trigonometry. Gou derived a cubic interpolation formula for his astronomical calculations. His calendar, the Shoushi Li, was disseminated in 1281 as the official calendar of the Yuan dynasty. The calendar may have been influenced solely by the work of Song dynasty astronomer Shen Kuo or possibly by the work of Arab astronomers. There are no explicit signs of Muslim influences in the Shoushi calendar, but Mongol rulers were known to be interested in Muslim calendars. Mathematical knowledge from the Middle East was introduced to China under the Mongols, and Muslim astronomers brought Arabic numerals to China in the 13th century.

Medicine

The physicians of the Yuan court came from diverse cultures. Healers were divided into non-Mongol physicians called otachi and traditional Mongol shamans. The Mongols characterized otachi doctors by their use of herbal remedies, which was distinguished from the spiritual cures of Mongol shamanism. Physicians received official support from the Yuan government and were given special legal privileges. Kublai created the Imperial Academy of Medicine to manage medical treatises and the education of new doctors. Confucian scholars were attracted to the medical profession because it ensured a high income and medical ethics were compatible with Confucian virtues.

The Chinese medical tradition of the Yuan had "Four Great Schools" that the Yuan inherited from the Jin dynasty. All four schools were based on the same intellectual foundation, but advocated different theoretical approaches toward medicine. Under the Mongols, the practice of Chinese medicine spread to other parts of the empire. Chinese physicians were brought along military campaigns by the Mongols as they expanded towards the west. Chinese medical techniques such as acupuncture, moxibustion, pulse diagnosis, and various herbal drugs and elixirs were transmitted westward to the Middle East and the rest of the empire. Several medical advances were made in the Yuan period. The physician Wei Yilin (1277–1347) invented a suspension method for reducing dislocated joints, which he performed using anesthetics. The Mongol physician Hu Sihui described the importance of a healthy diet in a 1330 medical treatise.

Western medicine was also practiced in China by the Nestorian Christians of the Yuan court, where it was sometimes labeled as huihui or Muslim medicine. The Nestorian physician Jesus the Interpreter founded the Office of Western Medicine in 1263 during the reign of Kublai. Huihui doctors staffed at two imperial hospitals were responsible for treating the imperial family and members of the court. Chinese physicians opposed Western medicine because its humoral system contradicted the yin-yang and wuxing philosophy underlying traditional Chinese medicine. No Chinese translation of Western medical works is known, but it is possible that the Chinese had access to Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine.

Printing and publishing

The Mongol rulers patronized the Yuan printing industry. Chinese printing technology was transferred to the Mongols through Kingdom of Qocho and Tibetan intermediaries. Some Yuan documents such as Wang Zhen's Nong Shu were printed with earthenware movable type, a technology invented in the 12th century. However, most published works were still produced through traditional block printing techniques. The publication of a Taoist text inscribed with the name of Töregene Khatun, Ögedei's wife, is one of the first printed works sponsored by the Mongols. In 1273, the Mongols created the Imperial Library Directorate, a government-sponsored printing office. The Yuan government established centers for printing throughout China. Local schools and government agencies were funded to support the publishing of books.

Private printing businesses also flourished under the Yuan. They published a diverse range of works, and printed educational, literary, medical, religious, and historical texts. The volume of printed materials was vast. In 1312, 1,000 copies of a Buddhist text commented by Cosgi Odsir were printed just within Beijing. By 1328, annual sales of printed calendars and almanacs reached over three million in the Yuan dynasty.

One of the more notable applications of printing technology was the Jiaochao, the paper money of the Yuan. Jiaochao were made from the bark of mulberry trees. The Yuan government used woodblocks to print paper money, but switched to bronze plates in 1275. The Mongols experimented with establishing the Chinese-style paper monetary system in Mongol-controlled territories outside of China. The Yuan minister Bolad was sent to Iran, where he explained Yuan paper money to the Il-khanate court of Gaykhatu. The Il-khanate government issued paper money in 1294, but public distrust of the exotic new currency doomed the experiment.

Foreign observers took note of Yuan printing technology. Marco Polo documented the Yuan printing of paper money and almanac pamphlets called tacuini. The vizier Rashid-al-Din recognized that printing was a valuable technological breakthrough, and expressed regret that the Mongol experiment with printing paper money had failed in the Muslim world. Rashid-al-Din's view was not shared by other chroniclers in the Middle East, who were critical of the experiment's disruptive impact on the Il-khanate.

Ceramics

In Chinese ceramics the period was one of expansion, with the great innovation the development in Jingdezhen ware of underglaze painted blue and white pottery. This seems to have begun in the early decades of the 14th century, and by the end of the dynasty was mature and well-established. Other major types of wares continued without a sharp break in their development, but there was a general trend to some larger size pieces, and more decoration. This is often seen as a decline from Song refinement. Exports expanded considerably, especially to the Islamic world.

Society

Imperial lifestyle

Since its invention in 1269, the 'Phags-pa script, a unified script for spelling Mongolian, Tibetan, and Chinese languages, was preserved in the court until the end of the dynasty. Most of the Emperors could not master written Chinese, but they could generally converse well in the language. The Mongol custom of long standing quda/marriage alliance with Mongol clans, the Onggirat, and the Ikeres, kept the imperial blood purely Mongol until the reign of Tugh Temur (Emperor Wenzong), whose mother was a Tangut concubine. The Mongol Emperors had built large palaces and pavilions, but some still continued to live as nomads at times. Tugh Temür was an example of a Yuan emperor who actively sponsored cultural activities; including in his imperial capacity and in his personal activities such as writing poetry, painting, reading Chinese classical texts, and ordering the compilation of books.

The average Mongol garrison family of the Yuan dynasty seems to have lived a life of decaying rural leisure, with income from the harvests of their Chinese tenants eaten up by costs of equipping and dispatching men for their tours of duty. The Mongols practiced debt slavery, and by 1290 in all parts of the Mongol Empire commoners were selling their children into slavery. Seeing this as damaging to the Mongol nation, Kublai in 1291 forbade the sale abroad of Mongols. Kublai wished to persuade the Chinese that he was becoming increasingly sinicized while maintaining his Mongolian credentials with his own people. He set up a civilian administration to rule, built a capital within China, supported Chinese religions and culture, and devised suitable economic and political institutions for the court. But at the same time he never abandoned his Mongolian heritage.

Culture

During the Yuan dynasty, various important developments in the arts occurred or continued in their development, including the areas of painting, mathematics, calligraphy, poetry, and theater, with many great artists and writers being famous today. Due to the coming together of painting, poetry, and calligraphy at this time many of the artists practicing these different pursuits were the same individuals, though perhaps more famed for one area of their achievements than others. Often in terms of the further development of landscape painting as well as the classical joining together of the arts of painting, poetry, and calligraphy, the Song dynasty and the Yuan dynasty are linked together.

In Chinese painting during the Yuan dynasty there were many famous painters. In the area of calligraphy many of the great calligraphers were from the Yuan dynasty era. In Yuan poetry, the main development was the qu, which was used among other poetic forms by most of the famous Yuan poets. Many of the poets were also involved in the major developments in the theater during this time, and the other way around, with people important in the theater becoming famous through the development of the sanqu type of qu. One of the key factors in the mix of the zaju variety show was the incorporation of poetry both classical and of the newer qu form. One of the important cultural developments during the Yuan era was the consolidation of poetry, painting, and calligraphy into a unified piece of the type that tends to come to mind when people think of classical Chinese art. Another important aspect of Yuan times is the increasing incorporation of the then current, vernacular Chinese into both the qu form of poetry and the zaju variety show. Another important consideration regarding Yuan dynasty arts and culture is that so much of it has survived in China, relatively to works from the Tang dynasty and Song dynasty, which have often been better preserved in places such as the Shōsōin, in Japan.

Religion

There were many religions practiced during the Yuan dynasty, such as Buddhism, Islam, Christianity and Manichaeism. The establishment of the Yuan dynasty had dramatically increased the number of Muslims in China. However, unlike the western khanates, the Yuan dynasty never converted to Islam. Instead, Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty, favored Buddhism, especially the Tibetan variants. As a result, Tibetan Buddhism was established as the de facto state religion. The top-level department and government agency known as the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (Xuanzheng Yuan) was set up in Khanbaliq (modern Beijing) to supervise Buddhist monks throughout the empire. Since Kublai Khan only esteemed the Sakya sect of Tibetan Buddhism, other religions became less important. He and his successors kept a Sakya Imperial Preceptor (Dishi) at court. Before the end of the Yuan dynasty, 14 leaders of the Sakya sect had held the post of Imperial Preceptor, thereby enjoying special power. Furthermore, Mongol patronage of Buddhism resulted in a number of monuments of Buddhist art. Mongolian Buddhist translations, almost all from Tibetan originals, began on a large scale after 1300. Many Mongols of the upper class such as the Jalayir and the Oronar nobles as well as the emperors also patronized Confucian scholars and institutions. A considerable number of Confucian and Chinese historical works were translated into the Mongolian language.

At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Hans and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.

Genghis Khan and the following Yuan emperors forbade Islamic practices like Halal butchering, forcing Mongol methods of butchering animals on Muslims, and other restrictive degrees continued. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret. Genghis Khan directly called Muslims and Jews "slaves" and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal method. Circumcision was also forbidden. Jews were also affected and forbidden by the Mongols to eat Kosher.

Among all the subject alien peoples only the Hui-hui say 「we do not eat Mongol food」. Qa』an replied: 「By the aid of heaven we have pacified you; you are our slaves. Yet you do not eat our food or drink. How can this be right?」 He thereupon made them eat. 「If you slaughter sheep, you will be considered guilty of a crime.」 He issued a regulation to that effect ... 1279/1280 under Qubilai all the Muslims say: 「if someone else slaughters animal we do not eat」. Because the poor people are upset by this, from now on, Musuluman Muslim Huihui and Zhuhu Jewish Huihui, no matter who kills animal will eat it and must cease slaughtering sheep themselves, and cease the rite of circumcision.

The Muslims in the semu class revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the Ispah Rebellion, but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding. Some Muslim communities had the name in Chinese meaning "barracks" and also meaning "thanks"; many Hui Muslims claim it is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was named in thanks by the Hans for assisting them.

During the Ming conquest of Yunnan, Muslim generals Mu Ying and Lan Yu led Muslim troops loyal to the Ming dynasty against Mongol and Muslim troops loyal to the Yuan dynasty.

Hindu statues were found in Quanzhou dating to the Yuan period.

Social classes

Politically, the system of government created by Kublai Khan was the product of a compromise between Mongolian patrimonial feudalism and the traditional Chinese autocratic-bureaucratic system. Nevertheless, socially the educated Chinese elite were in general not given the degree of esteem that they had been accorded previously under native Chinese dynasties. Although the traditional Chinese elite were not given their share of power, the Mongols and the Semu people (various allied groups from Central Asia and the western end of the empire) largely remained strangers to the mainstream Chinese culture, and this dichotomy gave the Yuan regime a somewhat strong "colonial" coloration. The unequal treatment is possibly due to the fear of transferring power to the ethnic Chinese under their rule. The Mongols and Semuren were given certain advantages in the dynasty, and this would last even after the restoration of the imperial examination in the early 14th century. In general there were very few North Chinese or Southerners reaching the highest-post in the government compared with the possibility that Persians did so in the Ilkhanate. Later the Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty also mentioned the discrimination that existed during the Yuan dynasty. In response to an objection against the use of "barbarians" in his government, the Yongle Emperor answered: "... Discrimination was used by the Mongols during the Yuan dynasty, who employed only "Mongols and Tartars" and discarded northern and southern Chinese and this was precisely the cause that brought disaster upon them".

The Mongols had employed foreigners long before the reign of Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty. But during Kublai's reign a hierarchy of reliability was introduced in China. The population was divided into the following classes:

• Mongols. The Mongols were called "Gao-chen" (the citizens of the ruling empire) by the conquered Southern Song population

• Semu, consisting of non-Mongol foreigners from the west and Central Asia, like Buddhist Uyghurs from Turfan, Tanguts, Tibetans, Jews, Nestorian Christians, and Muslims from Central Asia

• "Han", or all subjects of the former Jin dynasty, including Hans, Khitans, Jurchens in northern China, and other peoples like Koreans

• Southerners, or all subjects of the former Southern Song dynasty, including Hans and minority native ethnic groups in southern China, sometimes called "Manzi" during the Yuan

Partner merchants and non-Mongol overseers were usually either immigrants or local ethnic groups. Thus, in China they were Uighur Buddhists, Turkestani and Persian Muslims, and Christians. Foreigners from outside the Mongol Empire entirely, such as the Polo family, were everywhere welcomed.

At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Hans and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands. Hans were moved to Central Asian areas like Besh Baliq, Almaliq, and Samarqand by the Mongols where they worked as artisans and farmers. Alans were recruited into the Mongol forces with one unit called "Right Alan Guard" which was combined with "recently surrendered" soldiers, Mongols, and Chinese soldiers stationed in the area of the former Kingdom of Qocho and in Besh Balikh the Mongols established a Chinese military colony led by Chinese general Qi Kongzhi (Ch'i Kung-chih). After the Mongol conquest of Central Asia by Genghis Khan, foreigners were chosen as administrators and co-management with Chinese and Qara-Khitays (Khitans) of gardens and fields in Samarqand was put upon the Muslims as a requirement since Muslims were not allowed to manage without them. The Yuan-appointed Governor of Samarqand was a Khitan from the Qara Khitai, held the title Taishi, familiar with Chinese culture his name was Ahai.

Han officials and colonists were sent by the Yuan dynasty to areas of Lingbei province including Henning Circuit, Yilan Prefecture, and Qian Prefecture.

Despite the high position given to Muslims, some policies of the Yuan emperors severely discriminated against them, restricting Halal slaughter and other Islamic practices like circumcision, as well as Kosher butchering for Jews, forcing them to eat food the Mongol way. Toward the end, corruption and the persecution became so severe that Muslim generals joined Hans in rebelling against the Mongols. The Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang had Muslim generals like Lan Yu who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim communities had a Chinese surname which meant "barracks" and could also mean "thanks". Many Hui Muslims claim this is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was given in thanks by the Hans for assisting them. During the war fighting the Mongols, among the Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang's armies was the Hui Muslim Feng Sheng. The Muslims in the semu class also revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the Ispah Rebellion but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding.

The Yuan dynasty started passing anti-Muslim and anti-Semu laws and getting rid of Semu Muslim privileges towards the end of the Yuan dynasty, in 1340 forcing them to follow Confucian principles in marriage regulations, in 1329 all foreign holy men including Muslims had tax exemptions revoked, in 1328 the position of Muslim Qadi was abolished after its powers were limited in 1311. In the middle of the 14th century this caused Muslims to start rebelling against Mongol Yuan rule and joining rebel groups. In 1357–1367 the Yisibaxi Muslim Persian garrison started a revolt against the Yuan dynasty in Quanzhou and southern Fujian. Persian merchants Amin ud-Din (Amiliding) and Saif ud-Din) Saifuding led the revolt. Persian official Yawuna assassinated both Amin ud-Din and Saif ud-Din in 1362 and took control of the Muslim rebel forces. The Muslim rebels tried to strike north and took over some parts of Xinghua but were defeated at Fuzhou two times and failed to take it. Yuan provincial loyalist forces from Fuzhou defeated the Muslim rebels in 1367 after A Muslim rebel officer named Jin Ji defected from Yawuna.

The Muslim merchants in Quanzhou who engaged in maritime trade enriched their families which encompassed their political and trade activities as families. Historians see the violent Chinese backlash that happened at the end of the Yuan dynasty against the wealth of the Muslim and Semu as something inevitable, however anti-Muslim and anti-Semu laws had already been passed by the Yuan dynasty. In 1340 all marriages had to follow Confucian rules, in 1329 all foreign holy men and clerics including Muslims no longer were exempt from tax, in 1328 the Qadi (Muslim headmen) were abolished after being limited in 1311. This resulted in anti-Mongol sentiment among Muslims so some anti-Mongol rebels in the mid 14th century were joined by Muslims. Quanzhou came under control of Amid ud-Din (Amiliding) and Saif ud-Din (Saifuding), two Persian military officials in 1357 as they revolted against the Mongols from 1357 to 1367 in southern Fujian and Quanzhou, leading the Persian garrison (Ispah) They fought for Fuzhou and Xinghua for 5 years. Both Saifuding and Amiliding were murdered by another Muslim called Nawuna in 1362 so he then took control of Quanzhou and the Ispah garrison for 5 more years until his defeat by the Yuan.

The historian Frederick W. Mote wrote that the usage of the term "social classes" for this system was misleading and that the position of people within the four-class system was not an indication of their actual social power and wealth, but just entailed "degrees of privilege" to which they were entitled institutionally and legally, so a person's standing within the classes was not a guarantee of their standing, since there were rich and well socially standing Chinese while there were less rich Mongol and Semu than there were Mongol and Semu who lived in poverty and were ill-treated.

The reason for the order of the classes and the reason why people were placed in a certain class was the date they surrendered to the Mongols, and had nothing to do with their ethnicity. The earlier they surrendered to the Mongols, the higher they were placed, the more they held out, the lower they were ranked. The Northern Chinese were ranked higher and Southern Chinese were ranked lower because southern China withstood and fought to the last before caving in. Major commerce during this era gave rise to favorable conditions for private southern Chinese manufacturers and merchants.

When the Mongols placed the Uighurs of the Kingdom of Qocho over the Koreans at the court the Korean King objected, then the Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan rebuked the Korean King, saying that the Uighur King of Qocho was ranked higher than the Karluk Kara-Khanid ruler, who in turn was ranked higher than the Korean King, who was ranked last, because the Uighurs surrendered to the Mongols first, the Karluks surrendered after the Uighurs, and the Koreans surrendered last, and that the Uighurs surrendered peacefully without violently resisting.

Japanese historians like Uematsu, Sugiyama and Morita criticized the perception that a four-class system existed under Mongol rule and Funada Yoshiyuki questioned the very existence of the Semu as a class.

Nobility

Many Tusi chiefdoms and kingdoms in southwestern China which existed before the Mongol invasions were allowed to retain their integrity as vassals of the Yuan dynasty after surrendering, including the Kingdom of Dali, the Han Chinese Yang family ruling the Chiefdom of Bozhou with its seat at the castle Hailongtun, Chiefdom of Lijiang,

Chiefdom of Shuidong, Chiefdom of Sizhou, Chiefdom of Yao'an, Chiefdom of Yongning and Mu'ege. As were Korea under Mongol rule and the Kingdom of Qocho.

The Han Chinese nobles Duke Yansheng and Celestial Masters continued possessing their titles in the Yuan dynasty since the previous dynasties.

Administrative divisions

The territory of the Yuan dynasty was divided into the Central Region (腹裏) governed by the Central Secretariat and places under control of various provinces (行省) or Branch Secretariats, as well as the region under the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs.

The Central Region, consisting of present-day Hebei, Shandong, Shanxi, the south-eastern part of present-day Inner Mongolia and the Henan areas to the north of the Yellow River, was considered the most important region of the dynasty and directly governed by the Central Secretariat (or Zhongshu Sheng) at Khanbaliq (modern Beijing); similarly, another top-level administrative department called the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (or Xuanzheng Yuan) held administrative rule over the whole of modern-day Tibet and a part of Sichuan, Qinghai and Kashmir.

Branch Secretariats or simply provinces, were provincial-level administrative organizations or institutions, though they were not exactly provinces in modern sense. There were 11 "regular" provinces in Yuan dynasty, and their administrations were subordinated to the Central Secretariat.

Below the level of provinces, the largest political division was the circuit (道), followed by lù (路), fǔ (府) and zhōu (州). These are three kinds of prefecture-like divisions. The lowest political division was the county (縣).

Basically, lù is higher than fǔ, and fǔ is higher than zhōu. However, the actual relationship between them could be very complicated. Both lù, fǔ and zhōu could administer counties. Some fǔ and zhōu are directly administered by the province, while some exist inside a lù. A lù usually administers several counties, along with several fǔ and zhōu, and the fǔ or zhōu themselves could also administer their own counties. As a result, it is impossible to exactly define how many tiers of divisions there are under a province.

This government structure at the provincial level was later inherited and modified by the Ming and Qing dynasties.

Gallery

File:Yuan dynasty iron magic square.jpg|Magic square in Arabic numerals (Yuan dynasty)

File:Yuan Dynasty - waterwheels and smelting.png|smelting machines (Yuan dynasty)

File:水轮.jpg|Water wheel (Yuan dynasty)

File:水锤.jpg|Water hammer (Yuan dynasty)

File:纺织机.jpg|Weaving machine (Yuan dynasty)

File:水磨齿轮.jpg|water mill gear (Yuan dynasty)

File:农书织布机.jpg|loom (Yuan dynasty)

File:Zhao Mengfu1.jpg|Yuan painting (Zhao Mengfu)

File:Chuangzi_Nu1.jpg|Chuangzi Nu (Yuan dynasty)

File:Skanda detail heart sutra zhao mengfu.jpeg|Military costume.

File:Immortal Riding a Dragon.jpg|Yuan painting of a legendary figure riding on a dragon.

File:Horse and Groom, after Li Gonglin by Zhao Yong.jpg|Yuan cavalry

File:Jiang Ge.JPG|Yuan Mongol soldier

File:Qubilai Setsen Khaan.JPG|Genghis Khan's grandson, Kublai Khan during his youth

File:元负囊骑马俑.jpg|Mongol rider (Yuan dynasty)

File:Yuan stone Nestorian inscription (rep).JPG|Chinese stone inscription of a Nestorian Christian Cross from a monastery of Fangshan District in Beijing (then called Dadu, or Khanbaliq), dated to the Yuan Dynasty