生平

早年經歷

元文宗天曆元年九月十八日（1328年10月29日）未時，朱元璋出生於濠州鐘離縣東鄉（今安徽省鳳陽縣小溪河鎮燃燈寺村），排行第三。朱元璋先世家沛（今江蘇沛縣），後徙句容（今江蘇省句容市）達百年之久。祖輩生活在古泗州（今江蘇省盱眙縣）。父親朱五四（後改為世珍），母親陳氏為濠州鐘離縣（今安徽省鳳陽縣）人。

坊間謠傳朱元璋其實是回族人，據白壽彞《中國伊斯蘭史綱要》：「父老相傳，明太祖原是回回；建文帝的出走，係赴天方朝覲」。但實際上此說只是謠言，沒有任何可靠的史料證明朱元璋及其祖先與回族、伊斯蘭教有關，反倒是有其祖上信奉道教和佛教的記錄。

朱元璋幼時甚貧困，並無法讀書，曾為地主放牛。牧童夥伴多人都奉朱為領袖，且日後成朱起義將領多人，至正四年四月（1344年）淮北大旱，引發饑荒，朱元璋初六父崩，初九兄薨，廿二日母崩，與仲兄極力營葬後秋九月入皇覺寺當行童。入寺五十日，因荒年寺租難收，寺主封倉遣散眾僧，朱元璋只得離鄉為遊方僧雲遊淮西潁州。

起事討元

元至正八年（1348年），朱元璋游歷淮西、汝潁、泗等州完畢，返回皇覺寺並逐漸讀書識字。至正十二年（1352年）二月辛丑，身在皇覺寺多年的朱元璋受好友湯和來信勸說，到濠州投靠郭子興，參加紅巾軍。由於指揮有方，不久便成為郭子興身旁一名親兵並賜名元璋字國瑞，並娶郭子興養女馬氏（即後來的孝慈高皇后馬氏）。後來朱元璋見郭子興與其他濠州紅巾軍領袖如孫德崖、趙均用不和，屢有衝突，朱元璋不願涉及濠州內鬥，故主動要求返家鄉招募新兵，徐達、湯和等朱元璋兒時好友獲准隨行，不久朱元璋的部隊已有結集了數千人。次年，朱元璋部隊攻下滁州，成為他首個據點，同時也在攻佔滁州期間，李善長加入朱元璋部隊，成為他一個重要幕僚。此時，濠州的郭子興被孫德崖及趙均用迫走，前來滁州投靠朱元璋，由於朱元璋名義上仍是郭子興部下，朱元璋乃將滁州兵權交予郭子興。

至正十四年（1354年），張士誠據高郵，自稱為誠王，十五年，元朝丞相脫脫率軍進攻高郵，分兵攻六合，六合乃滁州屏障，故朱元璋領兵援六合，幸好脫脫被誣陷而被迫交出兵權，元軍不戰自潰，滁州也轉危為安。朱元璋見滁州地小，建議進攻長江北岸的和州。朱元璋攻下和州不久，郭子興病故，郭子興次子郭天敘被立為都元帥，朱元璋與郭子興妻弟張天祐為副元帥，遙奉韓林兒的大宋龍鳳政權。同年夏，常遇春、廖永安、俞通海歸附朱元璋，使得其軍著手渡江攻入採石、太平路，並計劃攻取集慶路（今南京市）。此時，元軍降將陳野先願協助紅巾軍攻集慶，郭天敘與張天祐感軍功不及朱元璋，故決定在陳野先引領下，親自領軍攻打集慶。結果紅巾軍攻集慶時陳野先叛變，郭、張二人被殺，陳野先也死於亂軍中。郭天敘與張天祐死後，朱元璋成為都元帥，盡領郭子興舊部。至正十六年（1356年），朱元璋領軍再攻集慶，一舉攻陷，改名應天府，作為根據地。至此，朱元璋以應天府為中心，與元朝軍隊、張士誠、徐壽輝等部形成犬牙交錯之勢。

一統江南

朱元璋攻佔應天後，開始攻佔應天周邊地區以鞏固防務。至正十六年，遣徐達攻佔鎮江、鄧愈克廣德，次年，遣耿炳文克長興，徐達克常州，而朱元璋親自率眾攻取寧國。隨後趙繼祖克江陰、徐達克常熟。胡大海克徽州、常遇春克池州，繆大亨克揚州。至正十八年，朱元璋親取婺州。明年，朱元璋陸續攻佔浙東餘下各地，常遇春克衢州、胡大海克處州，至此朱元璋部控制江左、浙右各地，向西與陳友諒部相鄰。朱元璋攻下浙東後，小明王升朱元璋為儀同三司江南等處行中書省左丞相，同時朱元璋也得浙東名士如朱升、劉基相助，朱元璋採取朱升「高築牆、廣積糧、緩稱王」的建議，採取穩健的進攻措施；並且遵照劉基「先漢後周」之策略，著手對江南各勢力進行對抗。

至正二十年，陳友諒攻陷太平路，隨後弒主徐壽輝、稱帝建國，國號漢，之後傾全軍攻應天府。朱元璋與劉基設計，先命胡大海進攻信州，斷陳友諒後援，再命部下康茂才詐降作陳友諒的內應，引漢軍主力進入朱元璋在應天城外龍灣設下的埋伏中，結果漢軍被朱元璋軍隊大敗，隨後朱元璋攻取太平、安慶、信州等地。。至正二十一年，朱元璋改樞密院為大都督府，重新整理軍制。北結察罕帖木兒、密通方國珍，而與正面的陳友諒部進行會戰。同年攻克江州、南康、建昌、撫州等地。次年，佔領龍興，改洪都府（今江西南昌）。

至正二十三年（1363年），張士誠派部將呂珍圍攻退守安豐的小明王韓林兒及丞相劉福通，朱元璋不顧劉基反對，派軍北上解安豐之圍，結果劉福通戰死，韓林兒被朱元璋救出。此後，韓林兒被朱元璋安置在滁州，仍然被奉為皇帝。陳友諒趁朱元璋主力軍北上，率六十萬水軍進攻朱元璋根據地，首先圍攻洪都，但朱元璋姪朱文正堅守洪都兩個多月，待朱元璋親率二十萬部隊馳援，陳友諒大軍改往鄱陽湖與朱元璋大軍交戰，史稱「鄱陽湖之戰」。陳友諒自恃巨艦出戰，採用炮攻，朱元璋險些負傷被擒。隨後，朱元璋利用東北風而改用火攻，致使陳友諒部大量受損。之後朱元璋利用鄱陽湖水位降低便於小舟活動，改為分兵水路圍攻陳友諒。陳友諒中箭身亡，漢軍潰敗。隨後朱元璋圍攻武昌，並盡佔湖北各地。次年，朱元璋自立為「吳王」，以李善長為右相國，徐達為左相國，常遇春、俞通海為平章政事，立子朱標為世子。次月再次親征武昌，陳友諒之子陳理舉降。隨後吳軍相繼攻克廬州、吉安、衡州。至正二十五年，吳軍繼續攻佔寶慶、贛州、浦城、襄陽，同年冬，下令討張士誠。次年，吳軍再次攻破湖州、杭州。再一年，徐達克平江，張士誠被俘，至此朱元璋一統江南。至正二十六年（1366年），朱元璋派廖永忠迎接韓林兒至金陵應天府，途中在瓜步渡長江時，韓林兒所乘船隻沉沒，韓遇難。

南征北伐

至正二十七年（1367年），朱元璋命湯和為征南將軍，討伐割據浙東多年的方國珍。隨後制定北伐戰略：先攻取山東，其次進攻河南，再次攻佔陝西潼關，最後再進軍元大都。隨後命徐達為征虜大將軍，常遇春為副將軍，帥師二十五萬，由淮河進入，北取中原。並命胡廷瑞為征南將軍，何文輝為副將軍，進攻福建。同年，方國珍投降，徐達攻破山東濟南，胡廷瑞下邵武，湯和、廖永忠由海道攻克福建福州。北伐一直持續到洪武年間，徐達、常遇春隨後攻佔整個河南、山西，最終直取元大都（今北京）。

建立明朝

至正二十八年正月初四（1368年1月23日），朱元璋在應天府登基即位，建國號大明，年號洪武，是為「明太祖」。以應天為「南京」，開封為「北京」。同年八月初二（9月14日），大將徐達攻克大都，元朝覆亡。由于幼年對于元末吏治痛苦記憶，即位後一方面減輕農民負擔，恢復社會的經濟生產，改革元朝留下的糟糕吏治，懲治貪污的官吏，社會經濟得到恢復和發展，史稱洪武之治。明太祖確立了里甲制，配合賦役黃冊戶籍登記簿冊和魚鱗圖冊的施行，落實賦稅勞役的徵收及地方治安的維持。

太祖平定天下後，大封諸將為公侯，部份追封為王。初封六公，其中以五大將、一大臣為開國元勳。分別為：韓國公李善長、魏國公徐達、鄭國公常遇春、曹國公李文忠、宋國公馮勝、衛國公鄧愈。而後又追封胡大海為越國公、戰死的丁德興為濟國公，湯和為信國公、馮國用封郢國公。次年，明太祖於雞鳴山立功臣廟，六月初三日廟成，太祖親定功臣位次，以徐達為首，次常遇春、李文忠、鄧愈、湯和、沐英、胡大海、馮國用、趙德勝、耿再成、華高、丁德興、俞通海、張德勝、吳良、吳禎、曹良臣、康茂才、吳復、茅成、孫興祖凡二十一人。死者像祀，生者虛位。又以廖永安、俞通海、張德勝、桑世傑、耿再成、胡大海、丁德興七人配享太廟。此位序屢經刪汰，已非洪武二年所定名單位次。

隨後，太祖進一步加強中央集權。洪武三年（1370年），殺中書左丞楊憲。洪武四年七月十一（1371年8月21日），傅友德攻克成都，明朝平定四川。洪武五年四月二十三日（1372年5月26日），廖永忠率明軍平定廣西，洪武五年六月初三（1372年7月3日），傅友德大敗元軍，明朝平定甘肅。洪武六年（1373年），太祖鑒於開國元勛多倚功犯法，虐暴鄉閭，特命工部製造鐵榜，鑄上申戒公侯的條令，類似戰國時代的「鑄刑鼎」。洪武八年（1375年），德慶侯廖永忠因僭用龍鳳諸不法事，賜死。洪武十二年（1379年），貶右丞相汪廣洋于廣南，旋賜死。洪武十三年（1380年），胡惟庸案發，左丞相胡惟庸被誅，太祖罷中書省，分中書省之權歸于六部，直接歸皇帝掌管。洪武十五年（1382年），設立錦衣衛，加強明朝特務統治。1382年1月6日，明軍在雲南昆明附近大敗元朝軍隊，元梁王自殺，1382年4月7日，藍玉、沐英攻克大理，段氏投降，明朝平定雲南。洪武十八年（1385年），郭桓案發，由于涉案人員甚多，太祖將六部左右侍郎以下官員皆處死，各省官吏死於獄中達數萬人以上。

洪武二十三年（1390年），李善長的家奴盧仲謙告發李善長與胡惟庸往來勾結，以「狐疑觀望懷兩端，大逆不道」見誅，接續又誅殺陸仲亨與唐勝宗、費聚、趙庸三名侯爵，株連被殺的功臣及其家屬共計達三萬餘人，連「浙東四先生」（劉基、宋濂、章溢、葉琛）亦不能免，並頒布《昭示奸黨錄》。洪武二十六年（1393年），藍玉被錦衣衛指揮蔣瓛密告謀反，史稱「藍玉案」。此案牽連到十三侯、二伯，連坐族誅達一萬五千人，明朝建國功臣因此案幾乎全亡。此時太祖又頒布《逆臣錄》，詔示一公、十三侯、二伯。洪武二十七年（1394年），太祖殺江夏侯周德興以及穎國公傅友德，在捕魚兒海戰役中立功的定遠侯王弼亦被賜死。洪武二十八年（1395年），開國六公爵最後一位僅存者馮勝被殺。

在處理內政同時，太祖亦多次籌劃北伐蒙古以保障北方邊塞的安寧，大勝。並曾成功在甘肅擊敗王保保（1372年）、在東北逼降納哈出（1387年）、在蒙古高原幾乎活捉元主脫古思帖木兒（1388年）。同時太祖進軍遼東，使朝鮮王朝等歸順（1388年）。

駕崩與紀念

洪武三十一年閏五月初十日（1398年6月24日），朱元璋崩於南京皇宮內，享壽七十歲，在位三十一年，與已故的元配妻子孝慈高皇后馬氏一起長眠於南京紫金山明孝陵。《明朝小史·卷三》載，責殉諸妃，強迫伺寢宮人盡數殉葬。《彤史拾遺記》記載，太祖以四十六妃陪葬孝陵，其中所殉，惟宮人十數人。公佈遺詔：

新任皇帝惠宗遵照遺命。

洪武三十一年六月甲辰，上謚曰「欽明啟運俊德成功統天大孝高皇帝」，廟號太祖。永樂元年六月十一日丁巳，增諡「聖神文武欽明啟運俊德成功統天大孝高皇帝」。

嘉靖十七年十一月朔，改諡「開天行道肇紀立極大聖至神仁文義武俊德成功高皇帝」。

清康熙帝歷次南巡必跪拜孝陵，曾立碑「治隆唐宋」讚譽其功。

中華民國建立初，孫文至孝陵祭告朱元璋。

中華人民共和國南京市、滁州市、武漢市皆存洪武路作為紀念。

治國政策

朱元璋一直以來都是以猛治國，認為「胡元以寬而失，朕收平中國，非猛不可」。恢復經濟著眼，歷史記載朱元璋是少數極力勤政的皇帝。亦顯現在清洗權貴勢力、以特務錦衣衛控制政治、又用文字獄及廷杖大臣，以立帝王權威。

政治改革

中央集權

明初沿襲元朝制度，設立中書省，置左、右丞相。甲辰正月，初置左、右相國，其中李善長為右相國，徐達為左相國。洪武元年（1368年），改為左、右丞相。由中書省統六部，但不設置中書令。

洪武十三年（1380年），胡惟庸案之後，太祖罷中書省，分中書省之權歸于六部。原中書省官屬盡革，惟存中書舍人。至此，秦、漢以降實行一千六百餘年的宰相制度自此廢除，相權與君權合而為一，施行軍權、行政權、監察權三權分立的國家體制。

由於國家事務繁多，皇帝無法處理，洪武十五年九月罷四輔官，仿宋殿閣制設內閣。內閣只為皇帝的顧問，雖無宰相之名，但有宰相之實。此外他仍沿用元朝制度，在中央設置吏、戶、禮、工、刑、兵六部。並設立都給事中六人，分吏、戶、禮、工、刑、兵六科，每科一人；此外建立五寺包括大理寺、太常寺、光祿寺、太僕寺、鴻臚寺等五寺制度。此外他還沿襲元的監察制度，設立御史台，有左右御史大夫各一名；不久改為都察院，下設若干監察御史，負責監督各級官吏。除此他還頒布《大明律》等，對官吏管理進行規制。

為了加強對臣民的控制和監視，太祖設置了巡檢司和錦衣衛。巡檢司主要是負責全國各地的關津要衝的把關盤查，緝捕盜賊，盤詰偽奸；錦衣衛則負責秘密偵察大小官吏活動，隨時向皇帝報告不公不法之徒。同時太祖還授予錦衣衛偵察、緝捕、審判、處罰罪犯等一切大權，錦衣衛正式成為直屬皇帝的情報機構。

鎮壓貪官

太祖出身貧寒，對政治貪污尤其憎惡，其對貪污腐敗官員處以極嚴厲的處罰。太祖在政期間，大批不法貪官被處死，包括開國將領朱亮祖，女婿駙馬都尉歐陽倫，其中甚至因為郭桓案、空印案殺死數萬名官員。由於太祖的吏治嚴厲，在明初相當長一段時間，官員腐敗的情況得到有效遏制。然而，隨著大明江山逐步穩定，再加上軍事和皇室貴族戰功大，享有很高的社會特權，不少人迅速腐化變質。。朱元璋開展雷厲風行的肅貪運動，歷時之久、措施之嚴、手段之狠、刑罰之酷、殺人之多，為幾千年曆史所罕見。儘管朱元璋反貪決心大、力度猛、出奇招，使腐敗現象得到一定程度的遏制，也一度取得了「階段性的成果」，但還是未能達到徹底清除人類貪欲權位腐敗的本性。

誅戮權臣

廖永忠和 朱亮祖 先後死於非命。隨後太祖以擅權枉法之罪名殺胡惟庸，又殺御史大夫陳寧、御史中丞塗節等人。之後李善長亦被牽連，家屬七十餘人被殺，總計株連者達三萬餘人。

洪武二十六年（1393年），錦衣衛指揮使奏藍玉謀反，朱元璋隨即派吏部審訊。三日後，朱元璋下令將藍玉磔于市，滅族。藍玉下獄後，口供稱同景川侯曹震、鶴慶侯張翼、舳艫侯朱壽、定遠侯王弼、東莞伯何榮及吏部尚書詹徽、戶部侍郎傅友文等謀反，均遭誅連。《逆臣錄》記載受此案株連被殺的高官有兩萬五千人。但紀非錄所記載太祖的兒子諸藩王犯有很多暴行，太祖則只是輕微勸戒了事。太祖還通過設立錦衣衛（洪武二十年廢除）、詔獄、廷杖等機構或制度，打擊功臣、特務監視等一系列方式加強皇權控制。

分封藩王

太祖遵古制，王命法：三十受兵、六十歸兵。國有三軍，所以誡非常，伐無道，尊宗廟，重社稷，安不忘危。太祖令諸藩鎮守天下，又各領兵權，這固然是親親之情，信任無以復加，卻也未必就沒有帝王心術。強藩林立，能做皇帝的卻始終只有一個，諸藩勢力犬牙交錯，必然相互牽制，相互監視，除非朝廷中樞衰弱之極。當中樞真的衰弱至極時，就算沒有藩王，也會被權臣取而代之。自三皇五帝，以一介布衣而成天子者，唯漢高祖與太祖，其他帝王，大都是前朝重臣或一方豪強而黃袍加身。所以由自己子孫取代無能之君，也勝過將江山付與外人之手，如此可保朱家數百年江山。

頒布法律

建國伊始，太祖就在《大明律令》的基礎上制訂頒行《大明律》，緊接著又親自編定《明大誥》。1397年，太祖下詔正式頒布了《大明律》。《大明律》一共四百六十卷，分吏、戶、禮、刑、兵、工六律，簡于《唐律》，嚴于《宋律》。《大明律》規定：「謀反」、「謀大逆」者，不管主犯還是從犯，一律凌遲，祖父，父、子、孫、兄、弟以及同居的人，只要是年滿十六歲的都要處決。太祖立法一為治民，二為治吏，尤其是《明大誥》對貪官污吏的處決也十分嚴厲，可以視為反貪刑事特別法。只要是犯有貪污的官吏，一經查實，一律發配北方荒漠中充軍，贓至六十兩以上者梟首示眾，仍剝皮實草。

太祖十分重視法律宣傳，寫了大誥三編和大誥武臣，讓臣民熟悉法律，不去犯禁。

軍事管理

早在朱元璋起兵時，他就多次強調軍紀。他認為「攻克城池用武力，平定混亂用仁政」，殺人並非「勇猛」。要求部隊不許濫殺無辜，還給予俘虜優待；同時還要求部隊愛護百姓，不得隨意焚燒搶掠亂殺百姓，他嚴令：「掠奪老百姓財物者處死，拆毀老百姓住房的處死。」由于朱元璋部隊的軍紀嚴明，朱元璋贏得了部屬的尊重，也贏得了民眾的支持。

明代早期軍隊的來源，有諸將原有之兵，有元兵及群雄兵歸附的，有獲罪而謫發的，而最主要的來源則是籍選，是由戶籍中抽丁而來。除此之外尚有簡拔、投充及收集等方式。洪武十三年（1380年），太祖廢除大都督府，並改為中軍、左軍、右軍、前軍、後軍等五軍都督府。洪武十七年（1384年），太祖在全國的各軍事要地，設立軍衛，由都督府管理。一衛有軍隊五千六百人，其下依序有千戶所、百戶所、總旗及小旗等單位，各衛所都隸屬於五軍都督府，亦隸屬於兵部，有事從征調發，無事則還歸衛所。軍隊來源為世襲的軍戶，由每戶派一人為正丁至衛所當兵，軍人在衛所中輪流戊守以及屯田，屯田所得以供給軍隊及將官等所需。五軍都督府有統兵權但無調兵權，兵部有調兵權而無統兵權，兩者互相制衡，互不統轄，各自與兵部直接聯繫，最後奏請皇帝裁定，以避免權力過大。

明代軍戶是世襲制,一旦列入軍籍,世代都是軍人,朝廷有事要為朝廷作戰。軍丁一旦逃亡、病故、老疾或被虜,就要按軍籍所造之冊,到該軍丁原籍追補本身或其親屬,以補足原數。

外交局面

元朝初期，元世祖曾經遠征日本，導致日本念念不忘，于是終元之世，日本不與中國同好。明朝開國以後，太祖就派使臣持國書去日本、高麗、安南、占城四國，宣告元朝已經滅亡，現在的稱霸中國是大明，應奉大明為「正朔」來朝貢。高麗、安南、占城三國太祖使赴明稱臣朝賀，惟獨日本沒有任何反應。令太祖更為惱火的是，不但日本人不來朝稱臣，而且「乘中國未定，日本率以零服寇掠沿海」。同時，被太祖消滅的張士誠、方國珍等殘部多逃亡海上，占據島嶼，勾結倭寇出沒海上擄掠財貨，遼寧、山東、福建、浙江、廣東，「濱海之地，無歲不受其害」。

後來太祖喝令「日本國王」處理倭寇，結果使者被日本人殺害。消息傳回中國後，太祖大為怒火，批日本是「國王無道民為賊」的「跳梁小丑」。面對日本，太祖忍下了惡氣，從此以後對日本使者一概驅逐處理，朝貢也一概拒絕接受，與日本不相往來。同時，太祖把朝鮮、日本、大琉球、小琉球、安南、真臘、暹羅、占城、蘇門答臘、西洋、爪哇、彭亨、百花、三佛齊、勃泥等15國列為「不征諸夷」，寫入《皇明祖訓》，告誡子孫這些「蠻夷國家」如果不主動挑釁，就不許征伐。

公元1370年（洪武三年）太祖派遣萊州知府趙秩遠赴日本。懷良親王經過趙秩的闡釋明處外交政策打消了顧慮。不久懷良派遣僧人祖來跟隨趙秩回明朝向進表箋。公元1371年（洪武四年）太祖派遣僧人祖闡、克勒等八人送日使歸國，從此明朝和日本建立了外交關係。

公元1392年（洪武二十五年）七月，高麗大將李成桂發動兵變掌控高麗局勢以後遣知密直司事趙胖至明朝禮部上表：「定昌府院君瑤權署國事，及今四年。瑤又昏迷不法，疏斥忠正，暱比讒邪，變亂是非，謀陷勛舊，諂惑佛神，妄興土木，靡費無度，民不堪苦；子奭癡佁無知，縱于酒色，聚會群小，謀害忠直。又其臣鄭夢周等潛成奸計，欲生亂階，乃將勛臣李成桂、趙浚、鄭道傳、南訚等譖于權署國事，令有司論劾以致謀害，國人憤怨，共誅夢周。權署國事尚不悛改，又謀殺戮。舉國臣民實慮社稷生靈俱被其害，惶懼失措，無可奈何，咸以為若所為難以主斯民奉社稷。洪武二十五年七月十二日，以恭愍王妃安氏之命，退居私第。竊念軍國之務不可一日無統，擇于宗親，無有可當輿望者，惟門下侍中李成桂澤被生靈，功在社稷，中外之心夙皆歸附。于是一國大小臣僚、閒良、耆老、軍民臣等咸願推戴，令知密直司事趙胖，前赴朝廷奏達，伏啟照驗，煩為聞奏，俯從輿意，以安一國之民。」太祖通過禮部傳達聖旨：「三韓臣民既尊李氏，民無兵禍，人各樂天之樂，乃帝命也。雖然，自今以後慎守封疆，毋生譎詐，福愈增焉。爾禮部以示朕意。」李成桂遣門下侍郎贊成事鄭道傳赴京謝恩，並獻馬六十匹。

當年八月，李成桂又遣前密直使趙琳赴京進表：「權知高麗國事臣李成桂言：伏惟小邦自恭愍王無嗣薨逝之後，辛旽子禑冒姓竊位者十有五年矣。迄至戊辰春，妄興師旅，將犯遼東，以臣為都統使，率兵至鴨綠江。臣竊自念小邦不可以犯上國之境，諭諸將以大義，即與還師，禑乃自知其罪，遜位子昌。昌亦暗弱，難以蒞位，國人啟奉恭愍王妃安氏之命，以定昌府院君王瑤權署國事。瑤乃昏迷不法，紊亂刑政，狎暱讒佞，貶斥忠良，臣民憤怨，無所控告。恭愍王妃安氏深慮其然，命歸私邸。于是一國大小臣僚、閒良、耆老、軍民等以為軍國之務不可一日無統，推戴臣權知軍國事。臣素無才德，辭至再三，而迫于眾情，未獲逃避，驚惶戰慄，不知所措。伏望皇帝陛下以乾坤之量、日月之明，察眾志之不可違、微臣之不獲已，裁自聖心，以定民志。」朱元璋再通過禮部複旨：「高麗限山隔海，天造東夷，非我中國所治。爾禮部回文書，聲教自由，果能順天意合人心，以妥東夷之民，不生邊釁，則使命往來，實彼國之福也。文書到日，國更何號，星馳來報。」

當年十一月，李成桂再遣藝文館學士韓尚質至明朝上表：「竊念小邦王氏之裔瑤，昏迷不道，自底于亡，一國臣民推戴臣權監國事。驚惶戰慄，措躬無地間，欽蒙聖慈許臣權知國事，仍問國號，臣與國人感喜尤切。臣竊思惟，有國立號誠非小臣所敢擅便。謹將「朝鮮」（箕子所建古國名）、「和寧」（李成桂誕生之地）等號聞達天聰，伏望取自聖裁。」太祖再通過禮部複旨：「東夷之號，惟朝鮮之稱美，且其來遠，可以本其名而祖之。體天牧民，永昌後嗣。」李成桂遣門下侍郎贊成事崔永沚謝恩，又遣政堂文學李恬送明朝頒賜的給前朝的高麗國王之印，並請更己名為「李旦」。

公元1394年（洪武二十七年）帖木兒帝國向明朝貢馬，而且致國書。第二年，明朝派遣兵科給事中傅安率領使團往報。但當傅安等抵達帖木兒帝國國都撒馬爾罕時，帖木兒打算要向東興兵，攻打明朝了，于是扣押了傅安等人，而且百般的誘惑傅安等人歸順帖木兒，傅安被扣押十三年，堅貞不屈，維護明朝的尊嚴。一直到了帖木兒死了以後，他的孫子哈里嗣位，想和明朝和好，于是才放傅安等人回國。傅安回國以後又出使了中亞諸國。

公元1395年（洪武二十八年）十一月，李成桂遣藝文春秋館太學士鄭總赴京請誥命印章：「洪武二十五年七月十五日，差知密直司事趙胖奏達天庭，繼差門下評理趙琳奉表陳奏，欽奉聖旨，許允權知國事。准奉禮部來咨內云：『國更何號，星馳來報。准此。』即差知密直司事韓尚質齎擎奏本赴京，欽奉聖旨節該：『東夷之號，惟朝鮮之稱美，且其來遠矣，可以本其名而祖之。欽此。』除欽遵外，洪武二十六年三月初九日，差門下評理李恬送納前朝高麗國王金印，又于當年十二月初八日准奉左軍都督督府咨，欽奉聖旨內一款節該：『即合正名。今既改號朝鮮，表文仍稱權知國事，未審何謀？欽此。』一國臣民戰慄惶懼，咸請國王欽遵施行。見今雖稱國王名號，竊緣未蒙頒降誥命及朝鮮國印信，一國臣民日夜顒望，仰天籲呼。伏請照驗，煩為聞奏，乞賜頒降國王誥命及朝鮮印信施行。」朱元璋通過禮部下旨拒絕：「今朝鮮在當王之國，性相好而來王，頑囂狡詐，聽其自然，其來文關請印信誥命，未可輕與。朝鮮限山隔海，天造地設，東夷之邦也，風殊俗異。朕若賜與印信誥命，令彼臣妾，鬼神監見，無乃貪之甚歟？較之上古聖人，約束一節決不可為。朕數年前曾敕彼儀從本俗，法守舊章，令聽其自為聲教。喜則來王，怒則絕行，亦聽其自然。爾禮部移文李成桂，使知朕意。」

海禁政策

明朝立國後日本因進入南北朝的大分裂時期後出現的、大量外出掠奪的武士階層為主的倭寇騷擾入侵的恐懼，明政府立國後採取了一系列針對海患的閉關鎖國政策：洪武三年（1370），明政府「罷太倉黃渡市舶司」；洪武七年（1374），明政府下令撤銷自唐以來即存在的、負責海外貿易的福建泉州、浙江明州、廣東廣州三市舶司，中國對外貿易遂告斷絕；洪武十四年（1381），太祖以倭寇仍不稍斂足跡，又下令禁瀕海民私通海外諸國，此後每隔一兩年即將該海禁政策再次昭示天下。

整個海禁政策從太祖開始，到了明穆宗在位期間被以「市通則寇轉而為商，市禁則商轉而為寇」為由實行開關（隆慶開關）；至清初又開始一連串的閉關，清高宗時更推行「一口通商」政策、直至鴉片戰爭後，通行整個明清二代的海禁政策才被徹底打破。

經濟與戶籍管理

元末（1341年－1370年），中國發生多次大規模的災荒饑饉疾病和瘟疫，及連年戰爭，生產遭到嚴重破壞，人口大量減少，經濟崩潰。大明建立並統一全國後，太祖實行黃老治術休養生息政策，同時主張藏富于民。

農業

發展農業。太祖通令全國，地主不得蓄養奴婢，所養的奴婢一律釋放為良民。凡因飢餓而典賣為奴者，由朝廷代為贖身；嚴格控制寺院的發展，明令各州府縣只能有一個大寺院，禁止四十歲以下的婦女當尼姑，嚴禁寺院收養童僧，二十歲以上的青年如果要是出家，必須得到父母和官方同意，出家後三年內還要赴京考試，不合格者潛發為民。這些政策的實施，使得社會增加了一隻龐大的勞動力大軍。

全國的農業生產在大規模戰爭而遭受極大破壞的背景下得到很大程度的恢復，加上太祖在位期間大規模向淮河以北和四川的荒無之地、墾荒填充移民，使人口得以穩定增長。

此外他也實行屯田政策，軍屯面積佔全國耕地的近十分之一。此外，商屯也相當盛行，政府以買賣食鹽的專賣證（稱之為鹽引）作為交換，利誘商人將糧食運往邊疆，以確保邊防的糧食需求。明太祖也曾派遣國子監下鄉督導水利建設、賑災，並以減免稅賦獎勵耕作。這些措施使得過去很多飽受戰亂損毀的地區恢復了生氣，使明朝的經濟得到了快速的恢復。

人口

到洪武二十六年（1393年），全國有6500萬人，其中民戶佔6175萬人，軍戶佔325萬人。政府實行戶口普查，田產普查，編制各種冊籍，施行保甲法與關律法，從法律上禁止人民自由行動，強制把人民分為軍戶（弓兵、校尉、力士）、匠戶、民戶（馬戶、陵戶、茶戶、柴戶、陰陽戶、醫戶）、灶戶，不允許隨便轉換工作，匠籍、軍籍比一般民戶地位低，不得應試，並要世代承襲。若想脫離原戶籍極為困難，須經皇帝特旨批准方可。各種活動也要引憑才合法。編成里甲，規定了路引制度，也就是通行証制度。普通百姓只要走出出生地百里之外，就得持有官府開具的通行証，否則就以逃犯論處。

「鄉村之人，至老不識城市。」

教育與文化政策

明朝初期實行「科舉必由學校」的政策，太祖多次強調：「古昔帝王育人材，正風俗，莫不先於學校。」明代洪武元年（1368年），詔開科舉，對制度、文體都有了明確要求。命令劉三吾等人刪節《孟子》中民貴君輕的內容，課試不以命題，科舉不以取士。遭刑部尚書錢唐冒死反對。洪武年間，太祖共主持舉辦六次科考，七次發榜，共取一甲21名、二甲223名、三甲686名，合930名，平均每科取士155人，為明朝選拔輸送了大量有學識的官員，包括練子寧、黃子澄、解縉等一代名相。洪武三十年科舉時，因中進士者均為南方籍。太祖將試官二十餘人指為胡黨藍黨凌遲殺害，並自閱試卷，取中六十一人，皆為北方人，並于六月廷試。此外，他並將學校列為「郡邑六事之首」，以官學結合科舉制度推行程朱理學，並設立國子監等重要教育機構。由於太祖在位期間實行高壓的吏治政策，明初詩文三大家不得善終，以至于「才能之士，數年來倖存者無一二，今所任率迂儒俗使」，後世不乏有學者主張太祖曾實行過一些文字獄。也有學者指出關於朱元璋嗜殺之事例，存有穿鑿附會的問題。

社會情況

太祖崇尚簡樸，也希望老百姓也勤儉節約。他規定靴子上不能有任何裝飾。同時對于全國人民怎麼穿衣；每個階層佩戴什麼樣的首飾；蓋什麼樣的房子；出行坐什麼樣的車子以及人們的行動舉止也是朱元璋關注的焦點，因而制定了一系列規章制度，包括了生活的方方面面，其細緻入微，可謂空前絕後。「洪武二十二年三月二十五日奉聖旨：「在京但有軍官軍人學唱的，割了舌頭；下棋打雙陸的，斷手；蹴圓的，卸腳；作買賣的，發邊遠充軍。」府軍衛千戶虞讓男虞端故違吹簫唱曲，將上脣連鼻尖割了。又龍江衛指揮伏顒與本衛小旗姚晏保蹴圓，卸了右腳，全家發赴雲南。又二十五年九月十九日，禮部榜文一款：「內使剃一搭頭，官民之家兒童剃留一搭頭者，閹割，全家發邊遠充軍。剃頭之人，不分老幼罪同。」」（《客座贅語》卷十）

太祖對天下老年人施以尊重，頒布《存恤高年詔》。洪武二十年，太祖怕有關部門執行不力，就又叮囑禮部尚書，要以皇帝的名義再次重申一下這項政策。在朝廷的要求和帶動下，各地形成了尊老養老的風氣，贍養老人的要求也滲透到各地家法族規之中。

對于社會的救濟朱元璋也十分重視，洪武時期，荒政則受到朝廷高度重視。朝廷除了撥付救災濟貧款項，還側重加強民眾抗災自救能力。面對天災侵襲，朱元璋積極作為，既樹立了朝廷的負責任形象，又增強了政府的凝聚力，贏得了民心。救災濟貧實為獲取民心、形成治世的重要前提，為「洪武之治」的出現夯實了經濟社會基礎。

為了貶抑商人，太祖他特意規定，農民可以穿綢、紗、絹、布四種衣料。而商人卻只能穿絹、布兩種料子的衣服。商人考學、當官，都會受到種種刁難和限制。

宗教管理

太祖建立明朝前後，十分重視宗教問題，通過協調儒釋道三者的關係，既穩定了局面，又爭取了人心，為鞏固明朝政權奠定了思想和群眾基礎。通過有效的宗教管理措施，把宗教的發展始終控制在適合自己的政治需要範圍內，並利用宗教教化番荑，不斷擴大自己的勢力範圍，為明政權創造了良好的國際環境。

洪武元年（1368年），朱元璋登基以後，為了鞏固自己的統治，他在嚴厲禁止、鎮壓白蓮教等民間秘密宗教的同時，即大力提倡尊朱崇儒，確立儒家思想、並大搞神道設教，扶植佛教和道教。洪武年間，朱元璋不僅耗費大量財力和物力，修繕靈谷寺、天界寺、天禧寺、能仁寺、雞鳴寺、棲霞寺等許多佛教寺院，還修複、重建朝天宮等一批道教宮觀，「凡道家所號天帝之宮，靡不崇飾」。（註：《金陵玄觀志》卷1，商輅：《奉敕重建朝天宮》。） 他還撥給寺觀、宮觀大量田土、蘆蕩，免除其稅糧和差役，並多次召集名僧舉辦法會，自己親戴皮弁，腰插玉圭，率領群臣頂禮膜拜，或徵召道士，舉辦齋醮祈雨，自己「設槁席露坐，晝曝于日中，頃刻不移，夜臥于地，衣不解帶」，（註：《明太祖實錄》卷53，洪武三年六月戊午。）可謂虔誠至極。他還多次召見名僧、道士，賜坐講論，有些應對稱旨的僧人甚至擢為大官，充當心腹耳目。朱元璋還應僧、道之請，設立善世院、玄教院，後改為僧錄司、道錄司，以名僧、道徒總領全國的佛教、道教事務。為了擴大佛、道的影響，朱元璋又命四方名僧點校《大藏經》（即《洪武南藏》），令宗泐、如玘等僧人重新箋釋《般若心經》、《金剛經》和《楞伽經》，親自為《心經》作序；並仿效唐宋君主，親為《道德經》作注，撰成《御注道德經》二卷，還撰寫了《周顛仙人傳》，廣行刊布。 明朝官方還多次組織刊刻卷帙浩大的佛藏和道藏。佛藏除《洪武南藏》外，還有《永樂南藏》、《永樂北藏》、《萬曆續北藏》以及藏文的《大藏經》，道藏則有《正統道藏》和《萬曆續道藏》。

在政治上，太祖推重儒釋道三教並舉的政策。他說：「嘗聞天下無二道，聖人無兩心。三教之立，雖持身榮儉之不同，其所濟給之理一。」他極為重視佛教的輔政作用，將佛教事務視為朝中大事，對佛教制度、僧寺清規多方整飭，期望以此整頓僧團，去淤除垢，「振揚佛法以善世」。

洪武六年（1373年），太祖下詔對出家的僧尼免費發放度牒，才使得唐朝年間流傳下來使的「度牒銀」制度全部廢除。

整頓僧團秩序，防止僧俗混淆，洪武二十四年，朱元璋還制定頒布了影響深廣的《申明佛教榜冊》，要求各地僧司查驗清理天下僧寺，欲還俗者聽其還俗，使出家僧人恪受戒律清規，禪、講、瑜伽，各歸本宗。

太祖親自製定的「御製至聖百字贊」以及明皇室關于修建清真寺和保護清真寺宗教職業人員的諭旨，在一定程度上肯定了回族的宗教生活。

生殉制度

殉葬制度，在西漢初以後，逐漸在中原政權消失。朱元璋二子秦王對人民暴行(見御製紀非錄)被宮人殺死，即連坐迫秦王諸妃自殺。明朝時期明孝陵以四十六妃陪葬，其中有太祖死時殺死殉葬十幾名侍寢宮人，這一制度沿襲至成祖、仁宗、宣宗、代宗。而「節烈從殉」的風氣，並向下廣為延伸至宗室公侯、官宦之家、以至民間，直至近百年之後其五世孫英宗死前指出殉葬非古禮，仁者所不忍，才禁殉葬于遺詔，永著為典。按朱元璋創立的制度，嬪妃殉葬由皇帝親臨作別。正統初，明英宗目睹皇父嬪妃殉葬，受很大刺激。天順年間下詔廢止。殺死從殉婦女的方法為將她們縊死，或勒死，或灌以水銀毒死。這些生殉的婦女被稱為「朝天女」，她們的家屬稱為「朝天女戶」，並給予一定待遇。關於朝天女記載主要依賴朝鮮的第一手資料《李朝實錄金黑口述》。寶慶公主生母張玄妙，以其女幼，得免殉葬。

評價

• 《明清史事沉思錄》中記載，「傳謂男子宮刑，婦人幽閉，皆不知幽閉之義。今得之，乃是于牝（陰戶）去其筋，如制馬、豕之類，使慾火消減。國初常用此，而女往往多死，故不可行也。」對這種滅絕人性的手術，這本書的作者王春瑜評論道：「將人等同畜生處置，始作俑者其無後乎！」

• 明孝陵康熙題碑：「治隆唐宋」。

• 清朝官修正史《明史》張廷玉等對明太祖朱元璋最終能夠成就帝業的評價是：「帝天授智勇，統一方夏，緯武經文，為漢、唐、宋諸君所未及。當其肇造之初，能沉幾觀變，次第經略，綽有成算。嘗與諸臣論取天下之略，曰：『朕遭時喪亂，初起鄉土，本圖自全。及渡江以來，觀群雄所為，徒為生民之患，而張士誠、陳友諒尤為巨蠹。士誠恃富，友諒恃強，朕獨無所恃。惟不嗜殺人，布信義，行節儉，與卿等同心共濟。初與二寇相持，士誠尤逼近。或謂宜先擊之。朕以友諒志驕，士誠器小，志驕則好生事，器小則無遠圖，故先攻友諒。鄱陽之役，士誠卒不能出姑蘇一步以為之援。向使先攻士誠，浙西負固堅守，友諒必空國而來，吾腹背受敵矣。二寇既除，北定中原，所以先山東、次河洛，止潼關之兵不遽取秦、隴者，蓋擴廓帖木兒、李思齊、張思道皆百戰之餘，未肯遽下，急之則併力一隅，猝未易定，故出其不意，反旆而北。燕都既舉，然後西征。張、李望絕勢窮，不戰而克，然擴廓猶力抗不屈。向令未下燕都，驟與角力，勝負未可知也。』帝之雄才大略，料敵制勝，率類此。故能戡定禍亂，以有天下。語云『天道後起者勝』，豈偶然哉。」 清朝官修正史《明史》張廷玉等對明太祖朱元璋一生事業的評價是：「贊曰：太祖以聰明神武之資，抱濟世安民之志，乘時應運，豪傑景從，戡亂摧強，十五載而成帝業。崛起布衣，奄奠海宇，西漢以後所未有也。懲元政廢弛，治尚嚴峻。而能禮致耆儒，考禮定樂，昭揭經義，尊崇正學，加恩勝國，澄清吏治，修人紀，崇鳳都，正後宮名義，內治肅清，禁宦豎不得幹政，五府六部官職相維，置衛屯田，兵食俱足。武定禍亂，文致太平，太祖實身兼之。至于雅尚志節，聽蔡子英北歸。晚歲憂民益切，嘗以一歲開支河暨塘堰數萬以利農桑、備旱潦。用此子孫承業二百餘年，士重名義，閭閻充實。至今苗裔蒙澤，尚如東樓、白馬，世承先祀，有以哉。」

• 毛澤東在1964年3月24日，在一次聽取匯報時的插話中對明太祖朱元璋、漢高祖劉邦、元太祖成吉思汗的治國能力評價如下：「可不要看不起老粗。」「知識分子是比較最沒有知識的，歷史上當皇帝的，有許多是知識分子，是沒有出息的：隋煬帝，就是一個會做文章、詩詞的人；陳後主、李後主，都是能詩善賦的人；宋徽宗，既能寫詩又能繪畫。一些老粗能辦大事：成吉思汗，是不識字的老粗；劉邦，也不認識幾個字，是老粗；朱元璋也不識字，是個放牛的。」 毛澤東對明太祖朱元璋的軍事才能評價如下：「自古能君無出李世民之右者，其次則朱元璋耳。」

• 趙翼曾說：「藉諸功臣以取天下，及天下既定，即盡取天下之人而殺之，其殘忍實千古所未有。蓋雄猜好殺，本其天性。」「蓋明祖之性，實帝王，豪傑，盜賊兼而且也。」

• 商傳評價朱元璋：「朱元璋出身于一個貧苦家庭，從社會最底層的放牛娃、四處討飯的小和尚，全靠自己的奮鬥成了一個統一王朝的開國皇帝。這是中國曆史上，乃至世界歷史上絕無僅有的事情。另外，朱元璋當上皇帝後，也沒有停止步伐，他在位三十多年，成功地建立一個強大統一的明帝國」。

• 廖燕：「明太祖以制義取士，與秦焚書之術無異，特明巧而秦拙耳，其欲愚天下之心一也。」

• 馮桂芬《校邠廬抗議.改科舉議》記饒廷襄曰：「明祖以時文取士，其事為孔、孟明理載道之事，其術為唐宗『英雄入轂』之術，其心為始皇焚書坑儒之心。」

• 顧炎武《日知錄》卷一六《擬題》：「八股之害，等于焚書，而敗壞人心，有甚于咸陽之郊所坑者但四百六十餘人也。」

• 黃仁宇：明朝採取嚴格的中央集權，施政方針不著眼于提倡扶助先進的經濟，以增益全國財富，而是保護落後的經濟，以均衡的姿態維持王朝的安全。這種情形，在世界史中實屬罕見，在中國曆史中也以明代為甚，而其始作俑者厥為明太祖朱元璋。

• 魯迅《二心集》：二十多年前，都說朱元璋(明太祖)是民族的革命者，其實是並不然的，他做了皇帝以後，稱蒙古朝為『大元』，殺漢人比蒙古人還利害。奴才做了主人，是決不肯廢去『老爺』的稱呼的，他的擺架子，恐怕比他的主人還十足，還可笑。

• 錢穆：明太祖革命，驅除胡元，複興漢、唐規模，成為當時政治上共同的理想。但明太祖終是一粗人，歷史文化修養不深，他首先反對尊孟子為聖人。他在中國傳統政治史上，做了一件創古未有的大翻案，即是正式下令廢止宰相，改用內閣大學士。照法理講，內閣只是皇帝的私人辦公廳，不是政府正式的政事堂。內閣學士也只是皇帝的內廷秘書，不是外朝正式宰相之職。于是皇帝在法理上，便變成在政府里的真正領袖。

• 顧祖禹：「太祖起自東南，奄有西北，為古今異數。嘗考其用兵之法，實一出于孫吳，攻瑕搗虛，是以所向無敵。夫有取天下之志，而無取天下之略，自開闢以來，未見有成功者也。太祖明于先後緩急之宜，分合向背之理，始則決機于兩陳，繼直制勝于廟廊，大略同于漢高，精密媲于光武。」

• 趙翼：蓋明祖一人，聖賢、豪傑、盜賊之性，實兼而有之者也。

• 崔瑞德主編《劍橋中國明代史》：這位傑出的開國之君在14世紀40年代，從天災人禍和饑寒交迫的鐘離村，一躍而在1368年在南京登上大寶，他走的這條道路由于他自己的雄心壯志和力求飛黃騰達的意識，已被有力地強行改造，而使之具有符合那些傳統形式的合理的外貌。他精通怎樣取得帝王統治之術。作為此後的皇帝，他將使這種帝王之術適應他為之著了迷的帝王大業的需要。

家族成員

父母兄姊

• 父：朱世珍仁祖淳皇帝，原名朱五四

• 母：淳皇后陳氏

• 兄弟：朱興隆南昌王，朱興盛盱眙王，朱興祖臨淮王

• 姊妹：曹國公主、太原公主

后妃

• 皇后：馬皇后，宿州人，郭子興義女，朱元璋髮妻。

• 妃嬪：成穆貴妃孫氏、淑妃李氏、寧妃郭氏、郭惠妃、莊靖安榮惠妃崔氏、江貴妃、趙貴妃、昭敬充妃胡氏、鄭安妃、達定妃、胡順妃、李賢妃、劉惠妃、葛麗妃、韓妃、余妃、楊妃、周妃、張美人、郜氏、林氏。除以上妃嬪外，其餘不可考。或稱，包括十數名宮人在內的四十六名嬪御殉葬孝陵。

• 除髮妻馬皇后外，朱元璋早年妾室可考証的有孫氏、郭氏、達氏數人。

　• 對其早期家庭生活亦有諸多傳聞。有甕妃、碽妃之說，其原為元順帝宮人，生下朱棣。或說朱梓母達氏為陳友諒妾，朱梓為陳友諒遺腹子。然皆無實証。朝鮮方面史料稱，周英贊、周誼之女為高麗進獻元朝的貢女，元順帝北逃後，入朱元璋後宮。或認為周妃是其中一人。

明朝官員劉辰所著國初事跡，濠州胡家有女守寡，朱元璋欲納之，其母不從。後聞隨軍在淮安，不曾適人，遣人以書達平章趙君用，請求之。君用以胡氏同其母送至，納之，立為胡妃。

　• 明初俞本所著《紀事錄》，至正十七年（1357年）「故元帥韋德成妻美，上令移居後庭，通而生子，名曰朱生。或諫曰：『故將之妻，不可納。』遂于本婦配總管胡汝名，朱生隨母往焉。」此前一年七月，韋德成、邵肆領兵攻宣州未成，韋德成溺死，邵肆陣亡。韋德成即寧正養父，而俞本是寧正部屬。龍鳳十三年（1365年），朱元璋「聞相國部下宣使熊義妹色美，欲納為宮人，令都事張來釋為媒，通言于熊義母，允納聘財訖，擇日歸內。來釋啟曰：『熊氏女許參政楊希武弟楊希聖久矣。』上怒曰：『汝既為媒，令臣民知吾之過。』立命將士提于內橋，眾刀斫為泥，示眾，追回財禮等物，仍令與楊希聖為婚，希聖終不敢娶。」

• 朱元璋殺害了很多拘禁在宮中的女人

　• 《罪惟錄》提到，朱元璋葛麗妃和李賢妃、鄗寧妃（一說即郭寧妃）用大筐盛著尸體，送出太平門外，胡充妃拋尸城外，1390年處死達定妃，1398年迫李賢妃自縊，天潢玉牒提到迫李淑妃殉葬死。

　• 《紀事錄》載，洪武年間宮廷內有大量浣衣罪婦，洪武二十九年，上疑其通外，將婦女五千餘人，俱剝皮貯草以示眾，守門宦者如之。（明初，常見剝皮之刑。朱元璋反腐中常用于貪官。）

　• 朱元璋死後，以妃嬪和宮人進行殉葬。「洪武三十一年七月，建文帝以張鳳、李衡、趙福、張弼、汪賓、孫瑞、王斌、楊忠、林良、李成、張敏、劉政由錦衣衛所試百戶散騎帶刀舍人，進為本所千、百戶，其官皆世襲。以諸人皆西宮殉葬宮人父兄，世所稱朝天女戶者也。」

子女

太祖共有二十六子，嫡長子朱標為皇太子，其餘皆分封為王，又分封一個從孫為王，使之出鎮全國險要。一部分鎮守北方以防蒙古的侵擾，稱邊王。他們東起遼東，西迄甘肅，各守據點，保衛著邊疆，如燕王朱棣鎮北平（今北京）、寧王朱權鎮大寧（今內蒙古昭烏達盟寧城縣大明城）、谷王朱橞鎮宣府（今河北宣化）等稱為「守邊」九王。餘下則星羅棋布，分駐內地。如周王鎮開封、楚王鎮武昌、潭王鎮長沙、蜀王鎮成都、魯王鎮兗州等。諸王中，以北方邊王的勢力最大。如寧王有甲士八萬，戰車六千。而燕王和晉王朱棡權力尤高，如中央派來的宋國公馮勝、穎國公傅友德等均受其節制，甚至朱元璋允許此二王擴展其軍事勢力，軍中事大者方才奏聞，但直接導致了建文帝的靖難之變。明太祖分封諸子為王，以加強邊防，藩屏皇室。諸王之中，以北方諸王勢力較強，又以秦王朱樉、晉王朱棡與燕王朱棣的勢力最大。為防止朝中奸臣不軌，明太祖規定諸王可移文中央捉拿奸臣，必要時得奉天子密詔，領兵「靖難」。同時為防止諸王尾大不掉，明太祖也允許今後的皇帝在必要時可下令「削藩」。

兒子

朱元璋前五子生母有爭議，有傳說朱棣母為碽妃或甕妃

女兒

殺害駙馬而守寡者包括安慶公主、汝寧公主。臨安公主和壽春公主後人因為是朱元璋後代免被族誅斬首。

後人

中華人民共和國前總理朱鎔基是朱元璋的直系後裔，屬于朱元璋第十八個兒子岷莊王這一支，朱鎔基是岷藩十九世孫。

太祖朱元璋第十一皇子蜀獻王朱椿第二十世子孫朱清時是物理化學家。

弗蘭克·里貝里的表弟聲稱，他們的家庭是中國皇帝的後裔，可能是朱元璋的孫子建文帝。

軼事典故

白話文聖旨

相傳明代天子常以口語發旨，並非朱元璋無能力以文言下筆，即便無能力，亦有翰林詞臣可以代為捉刀潤飾，之所以選擇白話，乃因白話簡便易懂，取其便利也。如明成祖曾將建文帝忠臣的妻子，貶為妓女，當這位女性死亡時，成祖發旨：「分付（吩咐）上元縣抬出門去，著狗喫了！欽此！」

• 朱元璋白話文聖旨之一：朱元璋時期，某群島有倭寇來犯，地方官吏問咋辦，朱元璋一道聖旨說：「奉天承運皇帝詔曰：告訴百姓每（們），準備好刀子，這幫傢伙來了，殺了再說。欽此。」

• 朱元璋白話文聖旨之二：洪武三年（1370年）11月26日給戶部下發的清查登記戶口的指示：「說與戶部官知道，如今天下太平了也，只是戶口不明白哩。教中書省置天下戶口的勘合文簿戶帖，你每（們）戶部家出榜去，教那有司官將他所管的應有百姓，都教入官附名字，寫著他家人口多少，寫得真著，與那百姓一個戶帖，上用半印勘合，都取勘來了。我這大軍如今不出征了，都教去各州縣裡下著，繞地里去點戶比勘合，比著的便是好百姓，比不著的，便拿來作軍。比到其間，有司官吏隱瞞了的，將那有司官吏處斬。百姓每（們）自躲避了的，依律要了罪過，拿來作軍。欽此。」

• 朱元璋白話文聖旨之三：洪武年間，第一任國子監祭酒（校長）宗訥秉承朱元璋的旨意，制訂了許多嚴苛的規章條文，以至于學生中有被餓死吊死的。因此曾引發過兩次學潮。其中第二次學潮是，一位名叫趙麟的太學生，寫了一張沒頭帖子（匿名大字報）。朱元璋聞訊之後，龍顏大怒，下令將趙麟梟首示眾。事情過去十年之後，朱元璋仍然余怒未消，就跑到國子監訓了一通話。這一通訓話，今天完整地保留在北京國子監的一塊石碑上。全文如下：恁學生每（們）聽著：先前那個宗訥做祭酒呵，學規好生嚴肅，秀才每循規蹈矩，都肯向學，所以教出來的個個中用，朝廷好生得人。後來他善終了，以禮送他回鄉安葬，沿路上著有司官祭他。近年著那老秀才每做祭酒呵，他每都懷著異心，不肯教誨，把宗訥的學規都改壞了，所以生徒全不務學，用著他呵，好生壞事！如今著那年紀小的秀才官人每來署學事，他定的學規，恁每當依著行。敢有抗拒不服，撒潑皮，違犯學規的，若祭酒來奏著恁呵，都不饒！全家發向煙瘴地面去，或充軍，或充吏，或做首領官。今後學規嚴緊，若有無籍之徒，敢有似前貼沒頭帖子，誹謗師長的，許諸人出首，或綁縛將來，賞大銀兩個。若先前貼了票子，有知道的，或出首，或綁縛將來呵，也一般賞他大銀兩個。將那犯人凌遲了，梟令在監前，全家抄沒，人口發往煙瘴地面。欽此！」

• 朱元璋賜外甥曹國公李文忠詔令：「老舅家書付保兒：教你知道驢馬（驢馬即朱元璋之侄、大都督朱文正小名）做的人。當自從守住江西，好生的行事不依法度。近來我的令旨，為開按察司衙門，他三日不接，我言教在江上打著船，便似叫化的一般。他又差人往浙西城子裡官賣物事，及至開我令旨，不許軍民頭目來聽。密行號令，但有按察司里告狀的，割了舌頭，全家處死。在那裡奸人家妻女，多端不仁。我禁人休去張家那下買鹽，他從江西自立批文，直至張家鹽場買鹽，江上把截的不敢擋，盡他往來。南台城裡倉與庫四處，俱各有物，其餘多等不仁不孝的勾當。我心裡悶，說不的許多。保兒且知道這幾件。你父親到時，自有話與他說也。保兒守城子，休學驢馬。你想你母親，你便休惱我。凡事依首領官行，那家好男子，他好公主的父親，以致這弟（闕）做的事。好驢馬所言。驢馬者，朱文正也。的令史都弄（此下年久損落不可考）」

• 朱元璋白話文聖旨之四：《諭西番罕都必喇等詔》：奉天承運的皇帝教說與西番地面里應有的土官每知道者：俺將一切強歹的人都拿了，俺大位子裡坐地有。為這般上頭，諸處里人都來我行拜見了，俺與了賞賜名分，教他依舊本地裡面快活去了。似這般呵，已自十年了。止有西番罕東畢里巴一撒他每這火人，為甚麼不將差發來，又不與俺馬匹牛羊？！今便差人將俺的言語去開與西番每知道，若將合納的差發認了，送將來時，便不征他；若不差人將差發來呵，俺著人馬往那裡行也者！教西番每知道。俺聽得說，你每釋伽佛根前、和尚每根前好生多與布施，麼道那的是十分好勾當，你每做了者，那的便是修那再生的福。有俺如今掌管著眼前的禍福哩，你西番每怕也那不怕？你若怕時節呵，將俺每禮拜著！將差發敬將來者！俺便教你每快活者，不著軍馬往你地面里來，你眾西番每知道者！

• 朱元璋白話文聖旨之五：洪武八年（1375年）給西安行都衛下發的關于接待烏思藏僧人的指示：皇帝聖旨：中書省官我根前題奏，西安行都衛文書里呈來，說烏思藏哈爾麻剌麻卒爾普寺在那裡住坐修行。我想修行是好的勾當，教他穩便在那裡住坐，諸色人等休教搔擾。說與那地面里官人每知道者。

嗜殺

明朝馬生龍所著《鳳凰台記事》記朱元璋嗜殺諸事：

• 高皇微行大中橋傍，聞一人言繁刑者，語近不遜。上怒，遂幸徐武寧第，武寧已出，夫人出迎，上問：「王安在？」夫人對以：「何事、在何所。」夫人慾命召，止之。乃曰：「嫂知吾怒乎？」夫人謝：「不知。」因大懼，恐為王也，叩首請其故。上曰：「吾，為人欺侮。」又請之，上怒甚，不言。久之，命左右往召某兵官，帥兵三千，持兵來，上默坐以待之。夫人益懼，以為決屠其家也，又不敢呼王。少頃兵至，上令二兵官，守大中、淮清二橋，使兵自東而西，誅之，當時頓滅數千家。上坐以伺，返命乃興。

• 元宵都城張燈，太祖微行至聚寶門外，見民間張一燈，上繪一大足婦人，懷一西瓜而坐，上意其有淮西婦人大足之訕，乃剿除一家九族三百餘口，鄰里俱發充軍。

• 洪武中，歐陽都尉挾四妓飲，事覺，逮妓急，妓分必死，大毀其貌，以往。一老胥謂曰：「予我千金，能免爾死。」妓與之半。胥曰：「上，位神聖，寧不知若曹之侈肆？慎不可欺，當如常貌，更加飾耳。」妓曰：「何如？」曰：「須沐浴靚潔，以脂粉香，澤面與身，令香透徹而肌理，極其妍艷。首飾衣裝，悉以金寶錦繡，雖裡衣褻裙，不可以寸素間之。務窮盡妖麗，能奪目蕩心則可。問其詞，一味哀呼而已。」妓從之。比見上，上令自陳，妓無一言，上顧左右曰：「綁起，殺了。」妓解衣就縛，自外及內備極華爛，繪彩珍具堆積滿地，照耀左右，至裸體，膚肉如玉，香聞遠近。上曰：「個小妮子，使我見，也當惑了。那廝可知哩。」即叱放之。

貼春聯和吃月餅

• 朱元璋在南京定都以後曾令「公卿士庶家，門上須加春聯一副」，還要求對聯所用的紙箋必須硃砂染色，名為「萬年紅」。「紅」和「朱」同義，寓意為大明王朝江山永固。。

• 早在徐達攻下元大都之後，朱元璋曾命以當年起兵時秘密傳遞消息所用「月餅」作為賞賜群臣的節令糕點。在八月十五中秋節吃月餅的同時還流傳著「八月十五殺韃子」的傳說。

喝茶講和

朱元璋起兵時，進軍徽州。當時在黃山腳下有兩個大戶人家，一個是程家一個是鮑家，兩家結怨已久，經常發生爭執。兩家聽聞朱元璋在徽州，便想由讓他主持個公道。

面對兩家的各執一詞，朱元璋有心化解恩怨卻無計可施，當時跟隨朱元璋的劉伯溫獻上一條妙計。于是，朱元璋請兩家人進了軍營里，說要請他們兩家一起喝茶。當地有好茶葉，但是軍營里卻沒有喝茶用的茶壺茶具。朱元璋把情況告訴程、鮑二人，倆人立刻派家丁回家去取。程、鮑二人為了爭面子拿了許多上好的茶具來，朱元璋對于每家的茶具都仔細觀摩，後又細細詢問。在一問一答間，三人把注意力放在了茶壺上，局面一片祥和。在這樣的氣氛中，朱元璋巧妙勸說二人，讓他們重歸于好。劉伯溫在一旁突然大笑起來，稱讚朱元璋這「喝茶講壺」的辦法英明。不過，劉伯溫是浙江人，這壺字的發音從他嘴裡一出，變成了「和」字的發音。從此以後，喝茶講和的傳統，就在黃山腳下流傳下來。

藏寶圖

位于浙江金華婺城區雅畈鎮和安村附近山崖上，當地的驢友發現了許多神秘摩崖石刻，大大小小的文字，工整有力，但年代久遠，風化嚴重，難以辨認。聽村里老人說，這些『天書』是朱元璋在南山避難時留下的藏寶圖。金華市文物局專家蔣金治表示，發現一塊石頭上留有明朝的年號，該石刻大約是元末明初石刻。

相關爭議

相貌之爭

朱元璋畫像存世有兩種版本，一為明清宮中所藏御容，方臉虯髯，一為世間所流傳的長臉版本。明朝陸容《菽園雜記》卷十四稱「太祖嘗集畫工寫御容，多不稱旨。有筆意逼真者，自以為必見賞，及進覽，亦然。一工探知上意，稍于形似之外，加穆穆之容以進。上覽之，甚喜，乃命寫數本以賜諸王。蓋上之意早有，而他工不能知也」，意指現存前一版本的朱元璋畫像曾經美化。

張萱《疑耀》則稱「先大夫令滇時，從黔國邸中模高皇御容，龍形虯髯，左臉有十二黑子，其狀甚奇，與世俗所傳相同，似為真矣。余值西省，始得府所藏高、成二祖御容，高皇帝乃美丈夫也，鬚髯皆為銀絲，可數，不甚修，無所謂龍形虯髯、十二黑子也。」，意指現存前一版本的朱元璋畫像才是真實形象。談遷在《棗林雜俎》認為民間流傳的版本是因為「太祖好微行察外事。微行恐人識其貌，所賜諸王侯御容一，蓋疑像也。真幅藏之太廟。」

另外，明朝張瀚《松窗夢語》稱：「成祖之容大類太祖，但頤間多髯，二縷長垂至腹。內侍相傳，上每進膳，用金鉤掛髯於耳。又聞袁柳莊云：『紫髯過臍，即登九五。』太宗每自拂其鬚，後果至腹始即位。」，現代學者認為明清宮中所藏的方臉虯髯御容，比較更接近朱元璋的真實形象。

文字獄

朱元璋曾借魏觀案興文字獄，處死詩人高啟。

張宏傑《朱元璋傳》認為，李成桂以權臣篡位，極度希望得到朱元璋的承認，所以他對朱元璋一直畢恭畢敬，忍氣吞聲，極力討好。不論從哪個角度，他都不可能在表文中故意諷刺朱元璋。朱元璋鄭重其事地在外國表文中大挑毛病，只能說明，他的心理變態已經嚴重到十分極端的程度了。

世人傳言說朱元璋因「光」「則」字殺人，但此事真實性受到學界廣泛懷疑。

徐禎卿《翦勝野聞》及趙翼《廿二史札記》中記載，洪武中翰林官徐一夔在賀表里寫到「光」字和「則」字，被朱元璋認為是諷刺自己當過和尚和反賊，于是被殺。但據學者陳學霖考証，徐一夔壽至八十餘歲，死于惠宗建文二年，故以上記載當系謬傳。

在《大明御製皇陵碑》裡，朱元璋本人並未隱瞞自己出家和參加起義的舊事，倒是坦承了這段在士大夫看來不堪的歷史。

影視作品

電影

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電視劇

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歌仔戲

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文學作品

• 金庸《倚天屠龍記》

• 黃易《覆雨翻雲》

注釋

Early life

Zhu was born to a family of impoverished peasant tenant farmers in Zhongli Village in the Huai River plain, which is in present-day Fengyang, Anhui Province. His father's name was Zhu Shizhen (朱世珍, original name Zhu Wusi 朱五四) and his mother was Chen Erniang. He had seven older siblings, several of whom were "given away" by his parents, as they did not have enough food to support the family. When he was 16, severe drought ruined the harvest where his family lived and famine subsequently killed everyone in his family except for him and one of his brothers. He then buried them by wrapping them in white cloth.

His grandfather, who lived to be 99 years old, served in the Southern Song army and navy, which had fought against the Mongol invasion, and told his grandson tales of it.

Destitute after his family's death, Zhu accepted a suggestion to take up a pledge made by his brother and became a novice monk at the Huangjue Temple, a local Buddhist monastery. However, he was forced to leave the monastery after it ran short of funds.

For the next few years, Zhu led the life of a wandering beggar and personally experienced the hardships of the common people. After about three years, he returned to the monastery and stayed there until he was around 24 years old. He learned to read and write during the time that he spent with the Buddhist monks.

Rise to power

The monastery where Zhu lived was eventually destroyed by an army suppressing a local rebellion. In 1352, Zhu joined one of the many insurgent forces that had risen in rebellion against the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. He rose rapidly through the ranks and became a commander. His rebel force later joined the Red Turbans (then led by Han Shantong), a millenarian sect related to the White Lotus Society, and one that followed cultural and religious traditions of Buddhism, Zoroastrianism and other religions. Widely seen as a defender of Confucianism and neo-Confucianism among the predominant Han Chinese population in China, Zhu emerged as a leader of the rebels that were struggling to overthrow the Yuan dynasty.

In 1356, Zhu and his army conquered Nanjing, which became his base of operations and the capital of the Ming dynasty during his reign. Zhu's government in Nanjing became famous for good governance, and the city attracted vast numbers of people fleeing from other more lawless regions. It is estimated that Nanjing's population increased tenfold over the next 10 years. In the meantime, the Yuan government had been weakened by internal factions fighting for control, and it made little effort to retake the Yangtze River valley. By 1358, central and Southern China had fallen into the hands of different rebel groups. During that time the Red Turbans also split up. Zhu became the leader of a smaller faction (called "Ming" around 1360), while the larger faction, under Chen Youliang, controlled the center of the Yangtze River valley.

Zhu Yuanzhang was the Duke of Wu, which was nominally under the control of Han Shantong's son Han Lin'er (w:zh:韩林儿), who was enthroned as the Longfeng 龙凤 Emperor of the Great Song dynasty (Red Turban Song dynasty w:zh:宋 (韩林儿)).

Zhu was able to attract many talents into his service. One of them was (朱升), who advised him to "build high walls, stock up rations, and delay claiming kingship" (高築牆、廣積糧、緩稱王). Another, Jiao Yu, was an artillery officer, who later compiled a military treatise outlining the various types of gunpowder weapons. Another one, Liu Bowen, became one of Zhu's key advisors, and edited the military-technology treatise titled Huolongjing in later years.

Starting from 1360, Zhu, and Chen Youliang fought a protracted war for supremacy over the former territories controlled by the Red Turbans. The pivotal moment in the war was the Battle of Lake Poyang in 1363. The battle lasted three days and ended with the defeat and retreat of Chen's larger navy. Chen died a month later in battle. Zhu did not participate personally in any battles after that and remained in Nanjing, where he directed his generals to go on campaigns.

In 1367, Zhu's forces defeated Zhang Shicheng's Kingdom of Dazhou, which was centered in Suzhou and had previously included most of the Yangtze River Delta, and Hangzhou, which was formerly the capital of the Song dynasty. This victory granted Zhu's government authority over the lands north and south of the Yangtze River. The other major warlords surrendered to Zhu and on 20 January 1368, Zhu proclaimed himself Emperor of the Ming dynasty in Nanjing and adopted "Hongwu" (lit. "vastly martial") as his era name.

In 1368, Ming armies headed north to attack territories that were still under Yuan rule. The Mongols gave up their capital, Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing), and the rest of northern China in September 1368 and retreated to Mongolia. On 15 October 1371, one of Hongwu's sons, Zhu Shuang, was married to the sister of Köke Temür, a Bayad general of the Yuan dynasty.

In 1371, the Ming dynasty defeated Ming Yuzhen's Xia polity, which ruled Sichuan.

The Ming army captured the last Yuan-controlled province of Yunnan in 1381, and China was unified under Ming rule.

Reign

Under Hongwu's rule, Mongol and other foreign bureaucrats who had dominated the government during the Yuan dynasty along with Northern Chinese officials were replaced by Han Chinese officials. The emperor re-instituted, then abolished, then restored, the Confucian civil service imperial examination system, from which most state officials were selected based on their knowledge of literature and philosophy. The Ming examination curriculum followed that set by the Yuan in 1313: a focus on the Four Books over the Five Classics and the commentaries of Zhu Xi. The Confucian scholar-bureaucrats who had been previously marginalized during the Yuan dynasty were reinstated to their predominant roles in the government.

"Barbarian" (i.e. Mongol-related) elements, including garments and names, were made illegal. There was no clear definition on what was "barbarian", and individual clothing styles and names were banned at the emperor』s will. There were also attacks on palaces and administrative buildings previously used by the rulers of the Yuan dynasty. But many of Taizu's government institutions were actually modeled on those of the Yuan dynasty: community schools required for primary education in every village.

Ming's legal system established by Hongwu contains various methods of execution including flaying, and slow slicing. One of his generals, Chang Yuchun, carried out massacres in Shandong and Hunan provinces to take revenge against people who resisted his army. Over time, Hongwu became increasingly fearful of rebellions and coups, and also ordered the execution of those of his advisors who criticized him. Manicheanism and the White Lotus Sect, which played significant roles during the revolts against the Yuan, were outlawed. He was also said to have ordered the massacre of several thousand people living in Nanjing after having heard one talked about him without respect. In the Hu Weiyong case alone, tens of thousands of officials and their families were executed over sedition, treason, corruption and other charges. According to an anecdote noted by Ming dynasty writers, in 1380, after much killing, a lightning bolt struck his palace and he stopped the massacres for some time, as he was afraid divine forces would punish him. In the 1390s, however, tens of thousands more people were executed due to their association with an alleged plot of rebellion by general Lan Yu.

Land reform

As Hongwu came from a peasant family, he was aware of how peasants used to suffer under the oppression of the scholar-bureaucrats, and the wealthy. Many of the latter, relying on their connections with government officials, encroached unscrupulously on peasants' lands and bribed the officials to transfer the burden of taxation to the poor. To prevent such abuse, he instituted two systems: Yellow Records and Fish Scale Records. They served both to secure the government's income from land taxes and to affirm that peasants would not lose their lands.

However, the reforms did not eliminate the threat of the bureaucrats to peasants. Instead, the expansion of the bureaucrats and their growing prestige translated into more wealth, and tax exemption for those in the government service. The bureaucrats gained new privileges, and some became illegal money-lenders and managers of gambling rings. Using their power, the bureaucrats expanded their estates at the expense of peasants' lands through outright purchase of those lands, and foreclosure on their mortgages whenever they wanted the lands. The peasants often became either tenants, or workers, or sought employment elsewhere.

Since the beginning of the Ming dynasty in 1357, great care was taken by Hongwu to distribute land to peasants. One way was by forced migration to less-dense areas. Hongtong County, for example, was the source of many of those migrants due to its particularly dense population. The migrants were gathered under a pagoda tree (洪洞大槐樹) and escorted to neighboring provinces. "The great pagoda tree in Hongtong, Shanxi" became a common idiom when referring to one's ancestral home in certain areas of Henan and Hebei. Public works projects, such as the construction of irrigation systems, and dikes, were undertaken in an attempt to help farmers. In addition, Hongwu also reduced the demands for forced labor on the peasantry.

In 1370, Hongwu ordered that some lands in Hunan and Anhui should be given to young farmers who had reached adulthood. The order was intended to prevent landlords from seizing the land, as it also decreed that the titles to the lands were not transferable. During the middle part of his reign, he passed an edict, stating that those who brought fallow land under cultivation could keep it as their property without being taxed. The policy was well received by the people and in 1393, cultivated land rose to 8,804,623 qing and 68 mu, something not achieved during any other Chinese dynasty. Hongwu also instigated the planting of 50 million trees in the vicinity of Nanjing, reconstructing canals, irrigation, and repopulation of the North.

Social policy

Under the Hongwu reign, rural China was reorganized into li (里), communities of 110 households. The position of community chief rotates among the ten most populous households, while the rest were further divided into tithings (jia, 甲). Together, the system was known as lijia. The communities were responsible for collecting tax and drafting labor for the local government. Village elders were also obliged to keep surveillance on the community, report criminal activities, and ensure that the residents are fully committed to agricultural work.

The Yuan dynasty Zhuse Huji (諸色戶計) system was continued and the households were categorized into different types. The most basic types, namely civilian households (民戶), military households (軍戶), craftsmen households (匠戶) and salt worker households (鹽灶戶), defined the family's form of corvée labor. Military households, for example, accounted for around one-sixth of the total population at the beginning of Yongle era, and each was required to provide an adult man as soldier, and at least one more person to work in support roles in the military. The military, craftsmen and salt worker households were hereditary, and converting into civilian households was impossible except in a few very rare situations. A family may simultaneously belong in one of the minor categories, e.g. physician households and scholar households, according to their occupation. In addition to the aforementioned "good" households, discriminatory types also existed, such as entertainer households (樂戶).

Travelers were required to carry a luyin (路引), a permit issued by the local government, and their neighbors were required to have knowledge of their itinerary. Unauthorized domestic migration was banned, and offenders were exiled. The policy was strictly enforced during the Hongwu era.

Zhu Yuanzhang passed a law on mandatory hairstyle on 24 September, 1392, mandating that all males grow their hair long and making it illegal for them to shave part of their foreheads while leaving strands of hair which was the Mongol hairstyle. The penalty for both the barber and the person who was shaved and his sons was castration if they cut their hair and their families were to be sent to the borders for exile. This helped eradicated partially shaved Mongol hairstyles and enforced long Han hairstyle.

Military

Hongwu realized that the Mongols still posed a threat to China, even though they had been driven away after the collapse of the Yuan dynasty. He decided to reassess the orthodox Confucian view that the military class was inferior to that of the scholar bureaucracy. He kept a powerful army, which in 1384 he reorganized using a model known as the weisuo system (衞所制, literally guard battalion). Each military unit consisted of 5,600 men divided into five battalions and ten companies. By 1393 the total number of weisuo troops had reached 1,200,000. Soldiers were also assigned land on which to grow crops whilst their positions were made hereditary. This type of system can be traced back to the fubing system (府兵制) of the Sui and Tang dynasties.

Training was conducted within local military districts. In times of war, troops were mobilized from all over the empire on the orders of the Ministry of War, and commanders were appointed to lead them to battle. After the war, the army was disbanded into smaller groups and sent back to their respective districts, while the commanders had to return their authority to the state. This system helped to prevent military leaders from having too much power. The military was under the control of a civilian official for large campaigns, instead of a military general.

Nobility

When the Ming dynasty emerged, Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang's military officers were given noble titles. These privileged the holder with a stipend, but in all other aspects was merely symbolic. Mu Ying's family was among them. Special rules against abuse of power were implemented on the nobles.

Bureaucratic reforms and consolidation of power

Hongwu attempted, and largely succeeded in, the consolidation of control over all aspects of government, so that no other group could gain enough power to overthrow him. He also buttressed the country's defense against the Mongols. He increasingly concentrated power in his own hands. He abolished the Chancellor's post, which had been head of the main central administrative body under past dynasties, by suppressing a plot for which he had blamed his chancellor Hu Weiyong. Many argue that Hongwu, because of his wish to concentrate absolute authority in his own hands, removed the only insurance against incompetent emperors.

However, Hongwu could not govern the sprawling Ming Empire all by himself and had to create the new institution of the "Grand Secretary". This cabinet-like organisation progressively took on the powers of the abolished prime minister, becoming just as powerful in time. Ray Huang argued that Grand-Secretaries, outwardly powerless, could exercise considerable positive influence from behind the throne. Because of their prestige and the public trust which they enjoyed, they could act as intermediaries between the emperor and the ministerial officials, and thus provide a stabilising force in the court.

In Hongwu's elimination of the traditional offices of grand councilor, the primary impetus was Hu Weiyong's alleged attempt to usurp the throne. Hu was the Senior Grand Councilor and a capable administrator; however over the years, the magnitude of his powers, as well as involvement in several political scandals eroded the paranoid emperor's trust in him. Finally, in 1380, Hongwu had Hu and his entire family arrested and executed on charges of treason. Using this as an opportunity to purge his government, the emperor also ordered the execution of countless other officials, as well as their families, for associating with Hu. The purge lasted over a decade and resulted in more than 30,000 executions. In 1390, even Li Shanchang, one of the closest old friends of the emperor, who was rewarded as the biggest contributor to the founding of the Ming Empire, was executed along with over 70 members of his extended family. A year after his death, a deputy in the Board of Works made a submission to the emperor appealing Li's innocence, arguing that since Li was already at the apex of honour, wealth and power, the accusation that he wanted to help someone else usurp the throne was clearly ridiculous. Hongwu was unable to refute the accusations and finally ended the purge shortly afterwards.

Hongwu also noted the destructive role of court eunuchs under the previous dynasties. He drastically reduced their numbers, forbidding them to handle documents, insisting that they remain illiterate, and executing those who commented on state affairs. The emperor had a strong aversion to the eunuchs, epitomized by a tablet in his palace stipulating: "Eunuchs must have nothing to do with the administration". This aversion to eunuchs did not long continue among his successors, as the Hongwu and Jianwen emperors' harsh treatment of eunuchs allowed the Yongle Emperor to employ them as a power base during his coup. In addition to Hongwu's aversion to eunuchs, he never consented to any of his consort kin becoming court officials. This policy was fairly well-maintained by later emperors, and no serious trouble was caused by the empresses or their families.

The Embroidered Uniform Guard or Jinyiwei was transformed into a secret police organization during the Hongwu era. It was given the authority to overrule judicial proceedings in prosecutions with full autonomy in arresting, interrogating and punishing anyone, including nobles and the emperor's relatives. In 1393, Jiang Huan (蔣瓛), the chief of Jinyiwei, accused general Lan Yu of plotting rebellion. 15,000 people was executed in familial extermination during the subsequent purges, according to Hongwu.

Through the repeated purges and the elimination of the historical posts, Hongwu fundamentally altered the centuries-old government structure of China, greatly increasing the emperor's absolutism.

Legal reform

The legal code drawn up in the time of Hongwu was considered one of the great achievements of the era. The History of Ming mentioned that as early as 1364, the monarchy had started to draft a code of laws. This code was known as Da Ming Lü (大明律, "Code of the Great Ming" or "Laws of the Great Ming"). The emperor devoted much time to the project and instructed his ministers that the code should be comprehensive and intelligible, so as not to allow any official to exploit loopholes in the code by deliberately misinterpreting it. The Ming code laid much emphasis on family relations. The code was a great improvement on the code of the Tang dynasty in regards to the treatment of slaves. Under the Tang code, slaves were treated as a species of domestic animal; if they were killed by a free citizen, the law imposed no sanction on the killer. Under the Ming dynasty, the law protected both slaves and free citizens.

Later during his reign, however, the Code of the Great Ming was set aside in favor of the far harsher legal system documented in Da Gao (大誥, "Great Announcements"). Compared to the Da Ming Lü, the penalties for almost all crimes were drastically increased, with more than 1,000 crimes eligible for capital punishment. Much of the Da Gao was dedicated to the government and officials, particularly for anti-corruption. Officials who embezzled more than the equivalent of 60 liang (one liang was around 30 grams) of silver were to be beheaded and then flayed, the skin publicly exhibited. Zhu Yuanzhang granted all people the right to capture officials suspected of crimes and directly send them to the capital, a first in Chinese history. Apart from regulating the government, Da Gao aimed to set limits to various social groups. For example, "idle men" (逸夫) who did not change their lifestyles after the new law came into effect would be executed and their neighbors exiled. Da Gao also included extensive sumptuary laws, down to details such as banning ornaments in heating rooms in the houses of commoners.

Economic reform

Supported by the scholar-bureaucrats, he accepted the Confucian viewpoint that merchants were solely parasitic. He felt that agriculture should be the country's source of wealth and that trade was ignoble. As a result, the Ming economic system emphasized agriculture, unlike the economic system of the Song dynasty, which had preceded the Yuan dynasty and relied on traders and merchants for revenues. Hongwu also supported the creation of self-supporting agricultural communities.

However, his prejudice against merchants did not diminish the numbers of traders. On the contrary, commerce increased significantly during the Hongwu era because of the growth of industry throughout the empire. This growth in trade was due in part to poor soil conditions and the overpopulation of certain areas, which forced many people to leave their homes and seek their fortunes in trade. A book titled Tu Pien Hsin Shu, written during the Ming dynasty, gave a detailed description of the activities of merchants at that time.

Although the Hongwu era saw the reintroduction of paper currency, its development was stifled from the beginning. Not understanding inflation, Hongwu gave out so much paper money as rewards that by 1425, the state was forced to restore copper coins because the paper currency had sunk to only 1/70 of its original value.

Education policy

Hongwu tried to remove Mencius from the Temple of Confucius as certain parts of his work were deemed harmful. These include "the people are the most important element in a nation; the spirits of the land and grain are the next; the sovereign is the lightest" (Mengzi, Jin Xin II), as well as, "when the prince regards the ministers as the ground or as grass, they regard him as a robber and an enemy" (Mengzi, Li Lou II). The effort failed due to the objection from important officials, particularly Qian Tang (錢唐), Minister of Justice. Eventually, the emperor organized the compilation of the Mencius Abridged (孟子節文) in which 85 lines were deleted. Apart from those mentioned above, the omitted sentences also included those describing rules of governance, promoting benevolence, and those critical of King Zhou of Shang.

At the Guozijian, law, math, calligraphy, equestrianism, and archery were emphasized by Hongwu in addition to Confucian classics and also required in the Imperial Examinations. Archery and equestrianism were added to the exam by Hongwu in 1370, similarly to how archery and equestrianism were required for non-military officials at the College of War in 1162 by the Song Emperor Xiaozong. The area around the Meridian Gate of Nanjing was used for archery by guards and generals under Hongwu.

A cavalry based army modeled on the Yuan military was implemented by the Hongwu and Yongle Emperors. Hongwu's army and officialdom incorporated Mongols.

Equestrianism and archery were favorite pastimes of He Suonan who served in the Yuan and Ming militaries under Hongwu. Archery towers were built by Zhengtong Emperor at the Forbidden City and archery towers were built on the city walls of Xi'an which had been erected by Hongwu.

Hongwu wrote essays which were posted in every village throughout China warning the people to behave or else face horrifying consequences. The 1380s writings of Hongwu includes the "Great warnings" or "Grand Pronouncements", and the "Ancestral Injunctions". He wrote the Six Maxims (六諭, 聖諭六言) which inspired the Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor.

Around 1384, Hongwu ordered the Chinese translation and compilation of Islamic astronomical tables, a task that was carried out by the scholars Mashayihei, a Muslim astronomer, and Wu Bozong, a Chinese scholar-official. These tables came to be known as the Huihui Lifa (Muslim System of Calendrical Astronomy), which was published in China a number of times until the early 18th century,

Religious policy

Mongol and Central Asian Semu Muslim women and men were required by Ming Code to marry Han Chinese after the first Ming Emperor Hongwu passed the law in Article 122.

Hongwu ordered the construction of several mosques in Nanjing, Yunnan, Guangdong and Fujian provinces, and had inscriptions praising the Islamic prophet Muhammad placed in them. He rebuilt the Jinjue Mosque (literally meaning: Pure Enlightenment Mosque) in Nanjing and large numbers of Hui people moved to the city during his rule.

Chinese sources claim that Hongwu had close relations with Muslims and had around ten Muslim generals in his military including Lan Yu, Ding Dexing, Mu Ying, Feng Sheng and Hu Dahai, and that "His Majesty ordered to have mosques built in Xijing and Nanjing capitals, and in southern Yunnan, Fujian and Guangdong." He also personally wrote a 100-word praise (baizizan) on Islam, Allah and the Prophet Muhammad.

During the war fighting the Mongols, the Hui Muslim Feng Sheng was among the Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang's armies.

Foreign policy

Vietnam

Hongwu was a non-interventionist, refusing to intervene in a Vietnamese invasion of Champa to help the Chams, only rebuking the Vietnamese for their invasion, being opposed to military action abroad. He specifically warned future Emperors only to defend against foreign barbarians, and not engage in military campaigns for glory and conquest. In his 1395 ancestral injunctions, the emperor specifically wrote that China should not attack Champa, Cambodia or Annam (Vietnam). With the exception of his turn against aggressive expansion, much of Taizu's foreign policy and his diplomatic institutions were based on Yuan practice.

"Japanese" pirates

Hongwu sent a message to the Japanese that his army would "capture and exterminate your bandits, head straight for your country, and put your king in bonds". In fact, many of the "dwarf pirates" and "eastern barbarians" raiding his coasts were Chinese, and Hongwu's response was almost entirely passive. The Ashikaga shōgun replied "Your great empire may be able to invade Japan, but our small state is not short of a strategy to defend ourselves." The necessity of protecting his state against the Northern Yuan remnants meant that the most Hongwu was able to accomplish against Japan was a series of "sea ban" measures. Private foreign trade was made punishable by death, with the trader's family and neighbors exiled; ships, docks, and shipyards were destroyed, and ports were sabotaged. The plan was at odds with Chinese tradition and was counterproductive as it tied up resources. 74 coastal garrisons had to be established from Guangzhou to Shandong, though they were often manned by local gangs. Hongwu's measures limited tax receipts, impoverished and provoked both coastal Chinese and Japanese against the Hongwu regime, and actually increased piracy- offering too little as a reward for good behavior and enticement for Japanese authorities to root out their own smugglers and pirates. Regardless of the policy, piracy had dropped to negligible levels by the time of its abolition in 1568.

Nonetheless, the sea ban was added by Hongwu to his Ancestral Injunctions and so continued to be broadly enforced through most of the rest of his dynasty: for the next two centuries, the rich farmland of the south and the military theaters of the north were linked only by the Jinghang Canal.

Despite the deep distrust, in Hongwu's Ancestral Injunctions, he listed Japan along with 14 other countries as "countries against which campaigns shall not be launched", and advised his descendants to maintain peace with them.

Byzantine Empire

The History of Ming, compiled during the early Qing dynasty, describes how Hongwu met with an alleged merchant of Fulin (拂菻; the Byzantine Empire) named "Nieh-ku-lun" (捏古倫). In September 1371, he had the man sent back to his native country with a letter announcing the founding of the Ming dynasty to his ruler (i.e. John V Palaiologos). It is speculated that the merchant was actually a former bishop of Khanbaliq (Beijing) called Nicolaus de Bentra, sent by Pope John XXII to replace Archbishop John of Montecorvino in 1333. The History of Ming goes on to explain that contacts between China and Fu lin ceased after this point, and diplomats of the great western sea (the Mediterranean Sea) did not appear in China again until the 16th century, with the Italian Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci.

Death

After a 30-year reign, The Hongwu Emperor died on 24 June 1398 at the age of 69. After his death, his physicians were penalized. He was buried at Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum on the Purple Mountain, in the east of Nanjing. The mass sacrifice of concubines after the emperor's death, a practice long disappeared among Chinese dynasties, was revived by Zhu Yuanzhang, probably to clear potential obstacles to the reign of his chosen successor. At least 38 concubines were killed as part of Hongwu's funeral human sacrifice.

Assessment

Historians consider Hongwu as one of the most significant emperors of China. As Patricia Buckley Ebrey puts it, "Seldom has the course of Chinese history been influenced by a single personality as much as it was by the founder of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang." His rise to power was fast despite his having a poor and humble origin. In 11 years, he went from being a penniless monk to the most powerful warlord in China. Five years later, he became emperor of China. Simon Leys described him this way: 'an adventurer from peasant stock, poorly educated, a man of action, a bold and shrewd tactician, a visionary mind, in many respects a creative genius; naturally coarse, cynical, and ruthless, he eventually showed symptoms of paranoia, bordering on psychopathy.'

Family

Zhu Yuanzhang had many Korean women and Mongolian women among his concubines along with his empress Ma and had 16 daughters and 26 sons with all of them.

Consorts and Issue:

• Empress Xiaocigao, of the Ma clan (孝慈高皇后 馬氏; 1332–1382), personal name Xiuying (秀英)

　• Zhu Biao, Crown Prince Yiwen (懿文皇太子 朱標; 10 October 1355 – 17 May 1392), first son

　• Zhu Shuang, Prince Min of Qin (秦愍王 朱樉; 3 December 1356 – 9 April 1395), second son

　• Zhu Gang, Prince Gong of Jin (晉恭王 朱㭎; 18 December 1358 – 30 March 1398), third son

　• Zhu Di, the Yongle Emperor (成祖 朱棣; 2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), fourth son. According to surviving Ming historical records, Zhu Di's mother was the Hongwu Emperor's primary consort, Empress Ma, the view Zhu Di himself maintained. Some contemporaries maintained, however, that Zhu Di's mother was one of his father's concubines, who might be of Korean origin, and that the official records were changed during his reign to list him as a son of the Empress Ma in order to sanction his succession on the "death" of the Jianwen Emperor.

　• Zhu Su, Prince Ding of Zhou (周定王 朱橚; 8 October 1361 – 2 September 1425), fifth son

　• Princess Ning (寧公主; 1364 – 7 September 1434), second daughter

　　• Married Mei Yin, Duke Rong (梅殷; d. 1405) in 1378, and had issue (two sons)

　• Princess Anqing (安慶公主), fourth daughter

　　• Married Ouyang Lun (歐陽倫; d. 23 July 1397) on 23 December 1381

• Noble Consort Chengmu, of the Sun clan (成穆貴妃 孫氏; 1343–1374)

　• Princess Lin'an (臨安公主; 1360 – 17 August 1421), personal name Yufeng (玉鳳), first daughter

　　• Married Li Qi (李祺; d. 1402), a son of Li Shanchang, in 1376, and had issue (two sons)

　• Princess Huaiqing (懷慶公主; 1366 – 15 July 1425), sixth daughter

　　• Married Wang Ning, Marquis Yongchun (王寧) on 11 September 1382, and had issue (two sons)

　• Tenth daughter

　• 13th daughter

• Noble Consort, of the Zhao clan (貴妃 趙氏)

　• Zhu Mo, Prince Jian of Shen (沈簡王 朱模; 1 September 1380 – 11 June 1431), 21st son

• Consort Ning, of the Guo clan (寧妃 郭氏)

　• Princess Runing (汝寧公主), fifth daughter

　　• Married Lu Xian (陸賢) on 11 June 1382

　• Princess Daming (大名公主; 1368 – 30 March 1426), seventh daughter

　　• Married Li Jian (李堅; d. 1401) on 2 September 1382, and had issue (one son)

　• Zhu Tan, Prince Huang of Lu (魯荒王 朱檀; 15 March 1370 – 2 January 1390), tenth son

• Consort Zhaojingchong, of the Hu clan (昭敬充妃 胡氏)

　• Zhu Zhen, Prince Zhao of Chu (楚昭王 朱楨; 5 April 1364 – 22 March 1424), sixth son

• Consort Ding, of the Da clan (定妃 達氏; d. 1390)

　• Zhu Fu, Prince Gong of Qi (齊恭王 朱榑; 23 December 1364 – 1428), seventh son

　• Zhu Zi, Prince of Tan (潭王 朱梓; 6 October 1369 – 18 April 1390), eighth son

• Consort An, of the Zheng clan (安妃 鄭氏)

　• Princess Fuqing (福清公主; 1370 – 28 February 1417), eighth daughter

　　• Married Zhang Lin (張麟) on 26 April 1385, and had issue (one son)

• Consort Hui, of the Guo clan (惠妃 郭氏)

　• Zhu Chun, Prince Xian of Shu (蜀獻王 朱椿; 4 April 1371 – 22 March 1423), 11th son

　• Zhu Gui, Prince Jian of Dai (代簡王 朱桂; 25 August 1374 – 29 December 1446), 13th son

　• Princess Yongjia Zhenyi (永嘉貞懿公主; 1376 – 12 October 1455), 12th daughter

　　• Married Guo Zhen (郭鎮; 1372–1399) on 23 November 1389, and had issue (one son)

　• Zhu Hui, Prince of Gu (谷王 朱橞; 30 April 1379 – 1428), 19th son

　• Princess Ruyang (汝陽公主), 15th daughter

　　• Married Xie Da (謝達; d. 1404) on 23 August 1394

• Consort Shun, of the Hu clan (順妃 胡氏)

　• Zhu Bai, Prince Xian of Xiang (湘獻王 朱柏; 12 September 1371 – 18 May 1399), 12th son

• Consort Xian, of the Li clan (賢妃 李氏)

　• Zhu Jing, Prince Ding of Tang (唐定王 朱桱; 11 October 1386 – 8 September 1415), 23rd son

• Consort Hui, of the Liu clan (惠妃 劉氏)

　• Zhu Dong, Prince Jing of Ying (郢靖王 朱棟; 21 June 1388 – 14 November 1414), 24th son

• Consort Li, of the Ge clan (麗妃 葛氏)

　• Zhu Yi, Prince Li of Yi (伊厲王 朱㰘; 9 July 1388 – 8 October 1414), 25th son

　• Zhu Nan (朱楠; 4 January 1394 – February 1394), 26th son

• Consort Zhuangjinghui, of the Cui clan (莊靖惠妃 崔氏)

• Consort, of the Han clan (妃 韓氏) (韓妃 (明太祖)). She was an ethnic Korean from Goryeo.

　• Zhu Zhi, Prince Jian of Liao (遼簡王 朱植; 24 March 1377 – 4 June 1424) (朱植), 15th son, ancestor of the last Ming Prince to refuse to capitulate to the Qing, Zhu Shugui, Prince Ningjing. Zhu Zhi's heirs used the generation names "Gui, Hao, En, Chong, Zhi, Yun, Reng, Qi, Bao, He, Xian, Shu, Yan, Zun, Ru, Cai, Han, Li, Long, Yu".

　• Princess Hanshan (含山公主; 1381 – 18 October 1462), 14th daughter ((含山公主)

　　• Married Yin Qing (尹清) on 11 September 1394, and had issue (two sons)

• Consort, of the Yu clan (妃 余氏)

　• Zhu Zhan, Prince Jing of Qing (慶靖王 朱㮵; 6 February 1378 – 23 August 1438), 16th son

• Consort, of the Yang clan (妃 楊氏)

　• Zhu Quan, Prince Xian of Ning (寧獻王 朱權; 27 May 1378 – 12 October 1448), 17th son

• Consort, of the Zhou clan (妃 周氏)

　• Zhu Pian, Prince Zhuang of Min (岷莊王 朱楩; 9 April 1379 – 10 May 1450), 18th son

　• Zhu Song, Prince Xian of Han (韓憲王 朱松; 20 June 1380 – 19 November 1407), 20th son

• Meiren, of the Zhang clan (美人 張氏), personal name Xuanmiao (玄妙)

　• Princess Baoqing (寶慶公主; 1394–1433), 16th daughter

　　• Married Zhao Hui (趙輝; 1387–1476) in 1413

• Lady, of the Lin clan (林氏)

　• Princess Nankang (南康公主; 1373 – 15 November 1438), personal name Yuhua (玉華), 11th daughter

　　• Married Hu Guan (胡觀; d. 1403) in 1387, and had issue (one son)

• Lady, of the Gao clan (郜氏)

　• Zhu Ying, Prince Zhuang of Su (肅莊王 朱楧; 10 October 1376 – 5 January 1420), 14th son

• Unknown

　• Princess Chongning (崇寧公主), third daughter

　　• Married Niu Cheng (牛城) on 21 December 1384

　• Zhu Qi, Prince of Zhao (趙王 朱杞; October 1369 – 16 January 1371), ninth son

　• Princess Shouchun (壽春公主; 1370 – 1 August 1388), ninth daughter

　　• Married Fu Zhong (傅忠; d. 20 December 1394), the first son of Fu Youde, on 9 April 1386, and had issue (one son)

　• Zhu Ying, Prince Hui of An (安惠王 朱楹; 18 October 1383 – 9 October 1417), 22nd son

Ancestry

In popular culture

Novels

• The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber, a 1961–63 wuxia novel by Louis Cha. Zhu Yuanzhang appears as a minor character in the novel. Zhu Yuanzhang has been portrayed by various actors in the films and television series adapted from this novel.

Television series

• Born to be a King (大明群英), a 1987 Hong Kong television series produced by TVB and starring Simon Yam as Zhu Yuanzhang.

• Zhu Yuanzhang (朱元璋), a 1993 Chinese television series produced by Beijing TV and starring Lü Qi as Zhu Yuanzhang.

• Empress Ma With Great Feet, a 2002 Chinese television series about Zhu Yuanzhang's wife, Empress Ma. Tang Guoqiang starred as Zhu Yuanzhang.

• Chuanqi Huangdi Zhu Yuanzhang, a 2006 Chinese television series starring Chen Baoguo as Zhu Yuanzhang.

• Founding Emperor of Ming Dynasty (朱元璋), a 2006 Chinese television series directed by Feng Xiaoning and starring Hu Jun as Zhu Yuanzhang.

• The Legendary Liu Bowen, a 2006–2008 Taiwanese television series about Zhu Yuanzhang's adviser, Liu Bowen. It was produced by TTV and starred Huo Zhengqi as Zhu Yuanzhang.

• Zhenming Tianzi (真命天子), a 2015 Chinese television series produced by Jian Yuanxin and starring Zhang Zhuowen as Zhu Yuanzhang.

• Love Through Different Times, a 2002 Chinese television comedy-drama that is considered the first time-travel television series produced in mainland China.