生平

拓拔焘即位时，只有十六岁，大臣们都拿他当小孩子看。于是拓拔焘决定先整顿吏治，励精图治，令人刮目相看，北魏国力进入鼎盛。427年，拓跋焘在连续两年突击统万城之后，占领胡夏的北部地区（包含首都统万），并一度攻下关中，胡夏虽迁都至平凉，却于次年（428年）打败魏军并收复关中。北魏在429年北伐柔然大获全胜之后，趁著柔然近十年都难以恢复的良机，把军队主力向南进攻，于430年大败刘宋与胡夏的联合攻势，不但占领胡夏大部分的关陇领土（包含平凉、关中、陇西郡），更在431年从宋军手中夺回河南四镇（洛阳、虎牢等），拓拔焘返回首都平城，祭告太庙并举行盛大的庆功典礼。

撤退到上邽的夏主赫连定，虽于431年灭西秦而稍微挽救了国势，并意图再灭北凉以维持胡夏，但却在432年，被吐谷浑君主慕容慕璝袭击而俘虏。同年赫连定被送给北魏，拓拔焘将其处死，胡夏亡。436年拓跋焘派军东征北燕，燕主冯弘在高句丽大军的保护之下，将首都人民全部东迁高句丽，而魏军主帅忌惮高军，坐看燕人东撤；北燕虽然灭亡，但只得空地空城，因此拓跋焘大怒之下处罚了征燕主帅娥清、古弼。439年拓拔焘率大军围攻北凉首都姑臧，凉主沮渠牧犍出降，北凉亡。至此，北魏统一华北，与江东的刘宋王朝对峙，形成南北朝的局面。

自前凉张氏以来，河西地方文化学术比较发达，号称多士。北魏自道武帝以后，政治上使用汉族高门，汲取不少魏晋典制。431年，藉由同年打败刘宋的威势，拓拔焘下诏，徵聘关东地区的数百名士（多为领导地方的世家大族）入朝为官，也就是把山东郡姓如范阳卢氏、博陵崔氏、赵郡李氏等势力一网打尽，强迫他们到平城担任无薪水的官职，让汉人世族的势力与北魏政权相结合。当时被徵召的名士高允，后来写了一篇文章〈徵士颂〉来追忆、赞扬此盛事。439年北魏吞并河西后，又有大批河西文士进入北魏统治区域，不少人被徵召到平城去做官，受到重用，北魏的儒学才开始兴盛。

之后，拓拔焘又击溃吐谷浑、柔然，扩地千馀里。他一共七次率军进攻柔然，太平真君十年(449)大败柔然，收民畜凡百馀万，柔然可汗远遁，北方边塞再度得到安静。

他在450-451年对宋的战争中，虽然大胜，但人马死伤近半，又使军民疲惫，怨声不已。末期又刑罚残酷，使国内政治混乱。譬如崔浩修国史详实记载魏先世事迹，可能涉及某些鲜卑习俗和隐私，有伤体面，拓跋焘不惜发动国史之狱，将三朝功臣司徒崔浩处死，连清河崔氏与浩同宗者以及崔浩姻亲范阳卢氏、太原郭氏、河东柳氏都遭族灭。事后拓跋焘说 「崔司徒可惜」，有后悔之意；再如监国执政的太子，也在父子权力冲突下，被宦官宗爱的谗言害死。正平二年二月甲寅（452年3月11日）拓跋焘被宗爱杀死，享年四十五岁，谥号太武帝，庙号世祖。

拓跋焘统治时期，氐、羌、屠各，以及所谓「杂虏」、「杂人」的各族暴乱非常频繁。太平真君六年（445年）卢水胡盖吴在关中杏城（今陕西黄陵西南）发动的起义，声势最为浩大。盖吴建号秦地王，有众十馀万，得到安定卢水胡刘超、河东蜀薛永宗的响应，拓跋焘调动强大的兵力才镇压下去。

拓跋焘受崔浩、寇谦之影响，奉道排佛。镇压盖吴过程中，在长安佛寺中发现大量兵器，认为佛寺与盖吴通谋，太平真君七年（446年），诏：「诸有佛图、形像及胡经，尽皆击破焚烧，沙门无少长悉坑之。」，是为北魏太武帝灭佛，三武灭佛之一（另外两位是北周武帝和唐武宗）。

才能与性格

拓跋焘天生将才，为人勇健，善于指挥。战阵亲犯矢石，神色自若，命将出师，违其节度者多败，因此将士畏服，为之尽力。有知人之明，常从士伍中选拔人才。赏不遗贱，罚不避贵，虽所爱之人亦不宽假。他放弃父亲拓跋嗣筑边城防御柔然的政策，主动攻击柔然并获得成功。他自奉俭朴，而赏赐功臣绝无吝啬，几乎把资源都用在主动出击的军功赏赐之上。认为元老功臣勤劳日久，应让他们以爵归第，随时朝见饷宴，百官职务则可另简贤能。这样就保证了行政效率，使政治多少能健全发展。他倚重汉人，李顺、崔浩、李孝伯等先后掌握朝权，但个性果于杀戮，处死大臣后常懊悔自己太快动刀。

评价

• 北齐史官魏收于《魏书》的「史臣曰」评论说：「世祖聪明雄断，威灵杰立，藉二世之资，奋征伐之气，遂戎轩四出，周旋险夷。扫统万，平秦陇，翦辽海，荡河源，南夷荷担，北蠕削迹，廓定四表，混一戎华，其为功也大矣。遂使有魏之业，光迈百王，岂非神睿经纶，事当命世。至于初则东储不终，末乃衅成所忽。固本贻防，殆弗思乎？」

• 唐代某贵族「公子」与世族虞世南的对话：「公子曰：『魏之太祖、太武，孰与为辈？』先生曰：『太祖、太武，俱有异人之姿，故能辟土擒敌，窥觎江外。然善战好杀，暴桀雄武，禀崆峒之气焉。至于安忍诛残，石季龙之俦也。』」

• 北宋司马光评论说：「（北魏）继以明元、太武，兼有青、兖，包司、豫，摧赫连，开关中，枭冯弘，吞辽碣，掳沮渠，并河右，高车入臣，蠕蠕远遁；自河以北，逾于大漠，悉为其有；子孙称帝者，百有馀年。左袵之盛，未之有也。」

• 资治通鉴记载： 魏主(指太武帝)为人，壮健鸷勇，临城对阵，亲犯矢石，左右死伤相继，神色自若；由是将士畏服，咸尽死力。性俭率，服御饮膳，取给而已。群臣请增峻京城及修宫室曰： 「《易》云：『王公设险，以守其国。』又萧何云：『天子以四海为家，不壮不丽，无以重威。』」帝曰：「古人有言：『在德不在险。』屈丐蒸土筑城而朕灭之。 岂在城也？今天下未平，方须民力，土功之事，朕所未为。萧何之对，非雅言也。」每以为财者军国之本，不可轻费。至于赏赐，皆死事勋绩之家，亲戚贵宠未尝横有所及。命将出师，指授节度，违之者多致负败。明于知人，或拔干于卒伍之中，唯其才用所长，不论本末。听察精敏，下无遁情，赏不遗贱，罚不避贵，虽所甚爱之人，终无宽假。常曰：「法者，朕与天下共之，何敢轻也。」然性残忍，果于杀戮，往往已杀而复悔之。

其他

太平真君四年（443年）拓拔焘遣大臣李敞所刻的石刻祝文，存于嘎仙洞内的石壁上。1980年7月30日，中国考古学家米文平等人在此洞发现石刻祝文，结合当时在洞内发现的陶器碎片等，认定此处即为史书中记载的北魏祖庭。但该洞是否确实就是拓跋鲜卑的发源地，史学界尚有争论。

佛狸祠

江苏省南京市六合区东南有瓜步山，山上有佛狸祠。

《魏书·世祖纪下》记载：北魏太武帝拓跋焘于宋元嘉二十七年击败王玄谟的军队以后，在山上建立行宫，即后来的「佛狸祠」。

南宋诗人辛弃疾有《永遇乐·京口北固亭怀古》：「可堪回首，佛狸祠下，一片神鸦社鼓」。后又有《水调歌头·舟次扬州和杨济翁周显先韵》：「谁道投鞭飞渡，忆昔鸣髇血污，风雨佛狸愁。」

东巡御射碑

太延元年（435年）十月，太武帝东巡冀州、定州，二十日甲辰到定州，驻驾于新城宫。十一月十六日己巳，在广川（河北景县）校猎。二十三日丙子到达邺城（河北临漳），祭祀密太后（太武帝母杜氏）庙，并慰问老年族人，褒礼贤俊。十二月二十日癸卯派遣使者到北岳恒山祭祀。次年正月初二甲寅从五回道返回平城。

在东巡至河北易县南管头之南画猫村古徐水河谷时，见山岩险峭，景观奇丽，魏太武帝即兴在猫儿岩下演示射术，射出的箭越过猫儿岩有三百多步，魏太武帝又命令随从擅于射箭的将士数百人都去射箭，武卫将军昌黎公拓跋丘、前军将军浮阳侯拓跋齐、中坚将军蓝田侯豆代田、射声校尉安武子韩茂、次飞督安熹子李盖等六人作为魏军中箭术出众的代表射箭，但没有超过魏太武帝的射程。镇东将军、定州刺史、乐浪公请求立碑纪念。到太延三年丁丑（437年）碑刻完工，乐浪公已去职，新任刺史征东将军、张掖公秃发保周接手此事。

东巡碑碑额题【皇帝东巡之碑】，史籍最早提到北魏太武帝东巡碑，是郦道元《水经注》。郦书之后，宋代乐史《太平寰宇记》卷六七易州满城县条，也曾提及此碑，称引的内容有溢出郦书者。此后东巡碑湮没无闻将近千年，直到1935年，由徐森玉（鸿宝）先生在河北易县觅得原碑，把20份拓本带回北平，次年傅增湘、周肇祥也前往摹拓，东巡碑才重新现身，为艺林所重。今碑已破碎，仅剩残片若干块。

家庭

后妃

• 太武皇后，赫连氏

• 敬哀皇后，贺氏，初为夫人，生拓跋晃。追封皇后

• 左昭仪冯氏，北燕昭成帝冯弘季女、北魏辽西王冯崇、冯朗、冯邈妹、柔然可汗斛律妻姐，为文明太后姑母

• 左昭仪闾氏，生南安王拓跋余。原为夫人，吴提妹妹

• 右昭仪沮渠氏，沮渠蒙逊女，即兴平公主

• 贵人赫连氏，赫连皇后妹妹

• 贵人赫连氏，赫连皇后妹妹

• 椒房越氏，生晋王拓跋伏罗

• 椒房舒氏，生东平王拓跋翰

• 椒房弗氏，生临淮王拓跋谭

• 椒房伏氏，生楚王拓跋建

子女

• 拓跋晃，追尊魏景穆皇帝，生母贺皇后

• 拓跋伏罗，北魏晋王，生母越椒房

• 拓跋翰，北魏东平王，生母舒椒房

• 拓跋谭，北魏临淮王，生母弗椒房

• 拓跋建，北魏楚王，生母伏椒房

• 拓跋余，北魏南安隐王，生母闾左昭仪

• 拓跋小儿，早逝，生母不详

• 拓跋猫儿，早逝，生母不详

• 拓跋真，早逝，生母不详

• 拓跋虎头，早逝，生母不详

• 拓跋龙头，早逝，生母不详

• 上谷公主，嫁乙瑰

影视形象

注释

参考

Early life

Tuoba Tao was born in 408, while his father Tuoba Si was still the Prince of Qi under his grandfather, Emperor Daowu, without having officially been made crown prince but was the heir presumptive, as the oldest and most favored son of Emperor Daowu. (Tuoba Tao's mother was later referred to in history as Consort Du (杜贵嫔), but was likely actually named Duguhun, as by the time that Wei Shu (the official history of Northern Wei) was written, the Duguhuns had their name changed to Du by Emperor Xiaowen.) He was Tuoba Si's oldest son. After Tuoba Si became emperor in 409 (as Emperor Mingyuan) following Emperor Daowu's assassination by his son Tuoba Shao (拓拔绍) the Prince of Qinghe, Tuoba Tao was assumed to be the eventual heir, but not given that title for a while. In Tuoba Tao's childhood, he was given the nickname Foli. In 420, Consort Du died, and he was thereafter raised by his wet nurse Lady Dou.

In 422, Emperor Mingyuan created Tuoba Tao the Prince of Taiping. Later that year, when he suffered a major illness, at Cui Hao's suggestion, he not only created Tuoba Tao crown prince, but further had Crown Prince Tao take the throne to serve as the secondary emperor. He commissioned his key advisors Baba Song (拔拔嵩), Cui, Daxi Jin (达奚斤), Anchi Tong (安迟同), Qiumuling Guan (丘穆陵观), and Qiudun Dui (丘敦堆) to serve as the Crown Prince's advisor. From this point on, most matters, particularly domestic matters, were ruled on by Crown Prince Tao, while Emperor Mingyuan himself only ruled on important matters. Later that year, when Emperor Mingyuan led a major attack on rival Liu Song, Tuoba Tao headed north to guard against a possible Rouran attack.

In 423, soon after capturing most of modern Henan from Liu Song, Emperor Mingyuan died. Tuoba Tao succeeded to the throne as Emperor Taiwu.

Early reign

Almost immediately after Emperor Taiwu took the throne, Rouran attacked after its Mouhanheshenggai Khan, Yujiulü Datan heard about Emperor Mingyuan's death. Emperor Taiwu engaged Rouran troops, and on the very first engagement became surrounded by Rouran troops, but he fought his way out of danger, and subsequently, he made nearly yearly attacks against Rouran, and each year, Rouran forces would elude him by retreating north, only to return south after he withdrew. Meanwhile, in 425, he reestablished peaceful relations with Liu Song. He also, in an action that later became a Northern Wei tradition, honored his wet nurse Lady Dou as "nurse empress dowager".

Also, soon after he took the throne, Emperor Taiwu became a devout Taoist. It was around this time that the Taoist Kou Qianzhi became famed, and Cui Hao became Kou's follower and often praised Kou before Emperor Taiwu. Emperor Taiwu was pleased by prophecies that Kou was making, which implied that he was divine in origin, and he officially endorsed Kou's proselytization of his state.

In 426, Emperor Taiwu began to look for a target to make a concentrated attack—asking his officials for their opinions on whom to attack between Xia and Rouran, and his officials were divided in their opinions, and some proposed yet another third target, Northern Yan, although after the death of the Xia emperor Helian Bobo later that year, he settled on making Xia his target. When Baba Song opposed this, Emperor Taiwu showed his fierce temper by having his guards pound Baba's head on the floor, but he also showed how quickly that temper went away by not demoting Baba. He then sent Daxi Jin to attack Puban (蒲阪, in modern Yuncheng, Shanxi) and Pu Ji (普几) to attack Shancheng (陕城, in modern Sanmenxia, Henan), while himself making a fast, cavalry-based attack on the Xia's heavily fortified capital Tongwan (统万, in modern Yulin, Shaanxi). Catching the Xia emperor Helian Chang by surprise, the Northern Wei troops intruded into Tongwan before withdrawing with much loot, while in the south, Helian Chang's generals Helian Yidou (赫连乙斗) and Helian Zhuxing (赫连助兴) abandoned not only Puban, but also Chang'an, allowing Daxi to occupy the Guanzhong region. In spring 427, Helian Chang sent his brother Helian Ding south to try to recapture Chang'an, but Helian Ding's forces became stalemated with Daxi's. In response, Emperor Taiwu made another attack on Tongwan. Helian Chang initially took Helian Ding's suggestion to try to defend Tongwan until he could defeat Daxi, but misinformation that Helian Chang received then induced him to come out of Tongwan to engage Northern Wei forces. Emperor Taiwu defeated him in battle, causing him to be unable to return to Tongwan and forcing him to flee to Shanggui (上邽, in modern Tianshui, Gansu), allowing Emperor Taiwu to capture Tongwan. In the start of what would be a string of marriages that could be characterized as either politically- or trophy-taking-related, he took three of Helian Bobo's daughters as his concubines. Upon hearing of Tongwan's fall, Helian Ding disengaged from Daxi and joined Helian Chang at Shanggui as well.

In 428, Daxi and Qiudun Dui, trying to capture Helian Chang, instead became trapped by Helian Chang in the city of Anding (安定, in modern Pingliang, Gansu). However, Daxi's subordinates Yuchi Juan (尉迟眷) and Anchi Jia (安迟颉) made a surprise attack and captured Helian Chang. Helian Ding took over as the emperor of Xia. Meanwhile, Emperor Taiwu treated Helian Chang as an honored guest, supplying Helian Chang with the same supplies that he himself used, and he married his sister Princess to Helian Chang and created him the Duke of Kuaiji; he also rewarded Yuchi and Anchi greatly and created them dukes. Subsequently, Daxi, humiliated that his subordinates captured Helian Chang and he himself appeared helpless, aggressively pursued Helian Ding, but instead was defeated and captured by Helian Ding. In fear, Qiudun and Tuoba Li (拓拔礼) the Prince of Gaoliang abandoned Chang'an as well and fled to Puban, allowing Xia to recapture Chang'an. In anger, although Qiudun had been a high-level official for him since the days that he was crown prince, he had Anchi execute Qiudun and take over his position. For the time being, Emperor Taiwu left Helian Ding alone, while preparing an assault on Rouran instead, since Rouran had been harassing the northern border region.

In light of the Xia campaign, the historian Sima Guang wrote this commentary about Emperor Taiwu, in his Zizhi Tongjian:

In 429, with only Cui Hao in support and most other officials opposing, Emperor Taiwu launched a major attack on Rouran. (The officials who opposed largely worried that Emperor Wen of Liu Song, who had for years wanted to regain the provinces south of the Yellow River that Emperor Mingyuan captured in 422 and 423, would attack.) Emperor Taiwu pointed out that even if Liu Song could attack, it became even more crucial to defeat Rouran first, lest that Rouran attacked at the same time that Liu Song did. He surprised Yujiulü Datan, whose people scattered, forcing him to flee. However, as he chased Yujiulü Datan, he himself became hesitant to advance further, and he withdrew. Only later did he hear that he was in fact very close to Yujiulü Datan's position and could have captured the Rouran khan had he chased further, and he regretted his withdrawal. On the way back, he also attacked Gaoche tribes, and along with the Rouran tribes that he captured, he resettled them south of the Gobi Desert and had them exercise agriculture. From this point on, Northern Wei's northern provinces became rich and no longer lacked livestock and leather. He greatly rewarded Cui, and from this point Cui's advice became what he accepted at all times.

In spring 430, Liu Song launched a major attack, and Emperor Taiwu, judging his own defenses south of the Yellow River to be unable to withstand a Liu Song attack, withdrew them north, judging correctly that Liu Song forces would stop at the Yellow River, planning to counterattack in the winter after the river froze. Meanwhile, hearing that Liu Song and Xia had subsequently entered into a treaty to attack him and divide Northern Wei lands, he judged correctly that despite the treaty Liu Song had no intention to cross the Yellow River north, and he decided to destroy Xia once and for all. In fall 430, he made a surprise attack on the new Xia capital Pingliang (平凉, also in modern Pingliang), while Helian Ding was engaging Western Qin's prince Qifu Mumo, putting Pingliang under siege, but although he then sent Helian Chang to Pingliang to try to persuade its defender, Helian Shegan (赫连社干, younger brother to both Helian Chang and Helian Ding), to surrender, Pingliang would not fall quickly. However, the Northern Wei general Tuxi Bi (吐奚弼) engaged Helian Ding as Helian Ding was trying to relieve Pingliang, defeating him and surrounding him at the Chungu Plains (鹑觚原, in modern Pingliang). Northern Wei forces surrounded him, and his army became hungry and thirsty. After several days, he forcibly fought his way out of the siege, but his forces mostly collapsed, and he himself was badly injured. He gathered the remaining forces and fled to Shanggui. Around the new year 431, Helian Shegan surrendered. Nearly all former Xia territory was now in Northern Wei hands. (Upon recovering Daxi Jin from Xia captivity, Emperor Taiwu punished him for his failures by temporarily making him the imperial porter in charge of serving meals, but soon pardoned him and restored him to his princely title.) (By 432, Helian Ding was no longer able to hold Shanggui, and he, after destroying Qifu Mumo's Western Qin, tried to head west to attack Northern Liang, but was intercepted by the khan of Tuyuhun, Murong Mugui (慕容慕璝), defeated, and captured. In 433, Murong Mugui, with promises of rewards, turned Helian Ding over to Emperor Taiwu, and he had Helian Ding executed.)

While Emperor Taiwu was on his Xia campaign, his generals, as he instructed, crossed the Yellow River when it froze in winter 430, and quickly recaptured Luoyang and Hulao. They soon forced the retreat of the main Liu Song force, under the command of the Liu Song general Dao Yanzhi (到彦之), and trapped the remaining Liu Song troops at Huatai (滑台, in modern Anyang, Henan). A relief mission by the Liu Song general Tan Daoji could not reach Huatai, and by spring 431, Huatai fell. All the lands lost to Liu Song a year earlier had been regained. (Emperor Taiwu, in another action typical of him, rewarded the Liu Song general Zhu Xiuzhi (朱修之), who had held Huatai for months faithfully, by giving him a daughter of an imperial clan member in marriage.)

In summer 431, Emperor Taiwu made his first proposal of a marriage between the two imperial families to Liu Song. (Based on subsequent events, it appeared to be a proposal of marriage between a son of his and a daughter of Emperor Wen's, but by this point it was not completely clear.) Emperor Wen responded to it ambiguously. From this point on, Emperor Taiwu would repropose the marriage on a nearly yearly basis, with the same kind of response from Emperor Wen. At the same time, however, he did enter into peaceful relations with Rouran, by returning a number of captured Rouran generals.

Middle reign

In spring 432, Emperor Taiwu honored his wet nurse, Nurse Empress Dowager Dou, empress dowager. He also created one of Helian Bobo's daughters as his empress, and his oldest son Tuoba Huang, by his deceased concubine Consort Helan, crown prince.

In summer 432, Emperor Taiwu, with Xia destroyed, began to attack Northern Yan in earnest. By fall 432, he had put Northern Yan's capital Helong (和龙, in modern Jinzhou, Liaoning) under siege. While he had several victories over Northern Yan forces, he chose to withdraw at the start of winter, after seizing a large number of Northern Yan's people and forcibly resettling them in his own state. For the next few years, he would launch yearly attacks against Northern Yan with the same pattern—seeking to weaken Northern Yan gradually. While Emperor Taiwu was concentrating on Northern Yan, he also had Northern Liang on his mind, but at the advice of his minister Li Shun (李顺), he decided to wait until Northern Liang's long-time prince, Juqu Mengxun, died.

In winter 432, the Northern Yan emperor Feng Hong's son Feng Chong (冯崇), who had feared that his father would put him to death because of false accusations by his stepmother Princess Murong, surrendered the important Northern Yan city of Liaoxi (辽西, in modern Tangshan, Hebei) to Northern Wei. To reward Feng Chong, Emperor Taiwu not only sent his brother Tuoba Jian (拓拔健) the Prince of Yongchang to save Feng Chong from his father's siege, but created him the Prince of Liaoxi with 10 commanderies as his fief.

In 433, Juqu Mengxun died, and Emperor Taiwu began to consider conquering Northern Liang. Still, initially, he continued to accept Juqu Mengxun's son Juqu Mujian as a vassal, and he took Juqu Mujian's sister as an imperial consort.

In spring 434, Helian Chang, for reasons lost to history, fled out of Pingcheng and apparently tried to start a rebellion. He was killed in battle, and Emperor Taiwu had Helian Chang's brothers put to death.

Also in spring 434, after initially refusing a peace offer from Northern Yan, Emperor Taiwu accepted after Feng Hong made an offer to give his daughter to Emperor Taiwu as a consort and returned the detained Northern Wei ambassador Huniuyu Shimen (忽忸于什门), who had been imprisoned by Feng Hong's brother and predecessor Feng Ba in 414 after being commissioned by Emperor Mingyuan. Emperor Taiwu, however, ordered Feng Hong to also send his crown prince Feng Wangren (冯王仁) to Pingcheng to meet him, and Feng Hong refused, ending the brief peace, and by summer 434, Northern Wei resumed its periodic attacks on Northern Yan. Meanwhile, around this time, he also took the sister of Rouran Chilian Khan Yujiulü Wuti, Lu Zuo Zhaoyi, as an imperial consort and married his sister or cousin Princess Xihai to Yujiulü Wuti, to further cement the peaceful relations.

In fall 434, while attacking the Xiongnu rebel Bai Long (白龙), Emperor Taiwu took Bai's forces lightly, and was nearly captured in an ambush, saved only by the efforts of his guard Houmochen Jian (侯莫陈建). He subsequently defeated Bai and slaughtered Bai's tribe.

In 436, Feng Hong sent another embassy, offering to send Feng Wangren as a hostage. Emperor Taiwu, not believing in Feng Hong's offer, refused, and prepared a final assault. When he arrived at Helong, however, Feng Hong had already requested assistance from Goguryeo, which sent troops to assist Feng Hong's plans of relocating his people to Goguryeo soil, and because Emperor Taiwu's general Tuxi Bi was drunk, the Northern Wei forces could not give chase, and in anger, Emperor Taiwu imprisoned and then demoted both Tuxi and his deputy, the general E Qing (娥清) to being common soldiers, although he subsequently made them generals again. He then sent messengers to Goguryeo, demanding that Goguryeo turn Feng Hong over. Goguryeo's King Jangsu refused, albeit humbly requesting to serve Emperor Taiwu together with Feng Hong. Emperor Taiwu, at the suggestion of his brother Tuoba Pi (拓拔丕) the Prince of Leping, did not immediately carry out a campaign against Goguryeo. (By 438, however, Feng Hong and Goguryeo would have a fall out, and King Jangsu would have Feng Hong executed.)

In late 436, the peaceful relations that Northern Wei had with Rouran since 431 ended, for reasons no longer known. Rouran continued its harassment of Northern Wei's northern border regions.

In 437, the marriage negotiations that Emperor Taiwu had with Liu Song's Emperor Wen appeared to reach some fruition, as Emperor Wen sent his official Liu Xibo (刘熙伯) to Northern Wei to discuss details of how one of his daughters would be married into the Northern Wei imperial household, but at this time, Emperor Wen's daughter died, and the negotiations ended.

Also in 437, exasperated by the rampant corruption that his local officials were engaging in (which was somewhat necessary for them because at this point, no Northern Wei officials received a salary), he issued an edict creating incentives for low-level officials and commoners to report officials for corruption. However, the edict did not have its calculated effect, as the people who had evidence of the officials' corruption instead used the knowledge to blackmail the officials, and the officials continued to be corrupt.

Later in 437, Emperor Taiwu married his sister Princess Wuwei to Juqu Mujian, and Juqu Mujian sent his heir apparent Juqu Fengtan (沮渠封坛) to Pingcheng to be a hostage. Despite this, he continued to consider conquering Northern Liang, but at Li Shun's urging, delayed it.

In 438, Emperor Taiwu launched a major attack on Rouran, but Rouran forces largely eluded his, and he made little gain.

In 439, aggravated that Juqu Mujian's sister and sister-in-law Lady Li (with whom Juqu Mujian was having an affair) had tried to poison Princess Wuwei, and also unhappy that Juqu Mujian had friendly relations with Rouran, decided to launch a major attack on Northern Liang. Li Shun, who had previously advised him to attack Northern Liang, by this point had somehow switched positions and, along with Tuxi Bi, opposed such military actions, stating falsely that there was so little water and grass for grazing in Northern Liang that Northern Wei troops would suffer from thirst and hunger. At Cui Hao's insistence, however, Emperor Taiwu believed that he could conquer Northern Liang, and he launched the campaign. He quickly reached the Northern Liang capital Guzang (姑臧, in modern Wuwei, Gansu) in the fall, capturing it after a short siege. Meanwhile, Yujiulü Wuti had launched a surprise attack on Pingcheng to try to save Northern Liang, but was repelled. (Cui Hao, who was a political enemy of Li Shun's, would attribute Li's switch in position to bribes by Juqu Mujian, and later Emperor Taiwu would force Li to commit suicide.) Northern Liang territory was largely in Northern Wei's control, and although both Juqu Mujian's brother Juqu Wuhui and Tufa Baozhou (秃发保周), a son of Southern Liang's last prince Tufa Rutan, would try to hold various parts of Northern Liang territory, by 440 Tufa Baozhou would be dead by suicide after failures, and by 441 Juqu Wuhui had fled to Gaochang. Northern China was now united under Emperor Taiwu's reign, ending the Sixteen Kingdoms era and starting the Southern and Northern Dynasties era. He continued to treat Juqu Mujian as a brother-in-law, and Juqu Mujian was allowed to continue carry the title of Prince of Hexi.

Late reign

In 442, at Kou Qianzhi's urging, Emperor Taiwu ascended a platform and formally received Taoist amulets from Kou, and changed the color of his flags to blue, to show his Taoist beliefs and to officially approve Taoism as the state religion. From that point on, it became a tradition for Northern Wei emperors, when they took the throne, to receive Taoist amulets. Also at Kou and Cui Hao's urging, he started building Jinglun Palace (静轮宫), intended to be so high that it would be quiet and close to the gods. (Crown Prince Huang, a Buddhist, opposed the construction project on the basis of cost, but Emperor Taiwu disagreed with him.)

An anti Buddhist plan was concocted by the Celestial Masters under Kou Qianzhi along with Cui Hao under the Taiwu Emperor. The Celestial Masters of the north urged the persecution of Buddhists under the Taiwu Emperor in the Northern Wei, attacking Buddhism and the Buddha as wicked and as anti stability and anti family. Anti Buddhism was the position of Kou Qianzhi. There was no ban on the Celestial Masters despite the nofullfilment of Cui Hao and Kou Qianzhi's agenda in their anti Buddhist campaign.

In fall 443, while attacking Rouran, Emperor Taiwu suddenly encountered Yujiulü Wuti, and Crown Prince Huang, who was with him, advised an immediate attack, but Emperor Taiwu hesitated, allowing Yujiulü Wuti to escape. From that point on, Emperor Taiwu began to listen to Crown Prince Huang's advice in earnest, and in winter 443, he authorized Crown Prince Huang to carry out all imperial duties except the most important ones, under assistance from Qiumuling Shou (丘穆陵寿), Cui, Zhang Li (张黎), and Tuxi Bi. Crown Prince Huang soon instituted a policy to encourage farming—by mandatorily requiring those who had extra cattle to loan them to those without, to be animals of burden, with the lease being paid for by those without cattle by tilling the grounds of the cattle owners, increasing the efficiency of the farmlands greatly.

In 444, the first major incident of much political infighting during Emperor Taiwu's late reign occurred. Dugu Jie (独孤洁), a high-level official, who had opposed attacking Rouran, was accused by Cui Hao of being so jealous of Cui, whose suggestions of attacking Rouran were accepted by Emperor Taiwu, that he sabotaged Emperor Taiwu's war efforts by giving the generals the wrong times for rendezvous, and then further planning to have Emperor Taiwu captured by Rouran and then making Emperor Taiwu's brother Tuoba Pi emperor. Emperor Taiwu put Dugu to death, and Tuoba Pi died from anxiety. Further, because Dugu implicated them while being interrogated, fellow officials Zhang Song (张嵩) and Kudi Lin (库狄邻) were also put to death.

In summer 444, eight nephews of the Tuyuhun khan Murong Muliyan (慕容慕利延), after their brother Murong Weishi (慕容纬世) had been put to death by their uncle, surrendered to Northern Wei and suggested that he attack Tuyuhun. In response, Emperor Taiwu sent his son Tuoba Fuluo (拓拔伏罗) the Prince of Jin to attack Tuyuhun and defeated Tuyuhun forces, forcing Murong Muliyan to flee into the Bailan Mountains (白兰山, in modern southwestern Qinghai). In 445, with Emperor Taiwu's distant cousin Tuoba Na (拓拔那) the Prince of Gaoliang in pursuit, Murong Muliyan fled west and occupied Yutian (Khotan). (However, after a few years, Tuyuhun would return to its original position.)

In 445, angry that Zhenda (真达), the king of Shanshan had refused Emperor Taiwu's messengers passage through Shanshan to other Xiyu kingdoms, Emperor Taiwu sent his general Tuwan Dugui (吐万度归) to attack Shanshan, and by fall 445 Zhenda had surrendered. Northern Wei occupied Shanshan.

In fall 445, responding to prophecies that "Wu" would destroy Wei, a Xiongnu man, Gai Wu, started an uprising against Northern Wei at Xingcheng (杏城, in modern Yan'an, Shaanxi), and he was quickly joined by a large number of other Xiongnu and Han people. Gai also submitted as a vassal to Liu Song, seeking Liu Song aid. Initial attempts by local officials to stamp out Gai's rebellion failed, and Gai became stronger and stronger, claiming the title of Prince of Tiantai. In spring 446, Emperor Taiwu personally attacked and defeated Gai's ally, the Han rebel Xue Yongzong (薛永宗), before facing Gai. Gai fled into the mountains, and Emperor Taiwu carried out harsh reprisals against those who had supported Gai, slaughtering them without mercy. After Emperor Taiwu reached Chang'an, he found a number of Buddhist temples with weapons in them, and he believed that the monks must be working with Gai, so he slaughtered the monks in Chang'an. Cui used this opportunity to encourage Emperor Taiwu to slaughter all monks throughout the empire and destroy the temples, statues, and sutras, and notwithstanding Kou's opposition, Emperor Taiwu proceeded to slaughter the monks in Chang'an, destroy the statues, and burn the sutras. He then issued an empire-wide prohibition of Buddhism. Crown Prince Huang, however, used delaying tactics in promulgating the edict, allowing Buddhists to flee or hide, but it was said that not a single Buddhist temple remained standing in Northern Wei. This was the first of the Three Disasters of Wu.

In spring 446, believing incorrectly that the Liu Song governor of Qing Province (青州, modern central and eastern Shandong), Du Ji (杜骥), was about to defect to him, Emperor Taiwu sent Tuoba Na and Tuoba Ren (拓拔仁, Tuoba Jian's son) the Prince of Yongchang to try to escort Du, and to attack Liu Song's Qing, Yan (兖州, modern western Shandong) and Ji (冀州, modern northwestern Shandong) Provinces, and while Northern Wei forces did not capture or hold those provinces, those provinces were greatly disturbed by the attack.

In summer 446, Gai returned to Xingcheng and restrengthened himself quickly. Emperor Taiwu sent Tuoba Na and Tuoba Ren to attack him, and Tuoba Na captured Gai's two uncles. Initially, Gai's uncles were to be delivered to Pingcheng, but the general Buliugu Qi (步六孤俟) suggested instead to make an oath with Gai's uncles and have them assassinate Gai. Tuoba Na agreed, and Gai's uncles assassinated him, ending Gai's rebellion.

In 447, believing that Juqu Mujian had secretly hidden Northern Liang treasures that he had claimed to be lost to pillaging troops, Emperor Taiwu first slaughtered nearly the entire Juqu clan, and then forced Juqu Mujian and Consort Juqu to commit suicide.

In 448, Emperor Taiwu created his general Chudahan Ba (出大汗拔) the Prince of Shanshan, effectively making Shanshan a part of his empire. He also had Tuwan Dugui attack a number of other Xiyu kingdoms, forcing their submission.

In winter 448 and spring 449, Emperor Taiwu and Crown Prince Huang attacked Rouran together, but Rouran's Chuluo Khan, Yujiulü Tuhezhen eluded them and did not engage them. In fall 449, however, Tuoba Na was able to inflict heavy losses on Rouran, and for several years Rouran did not attack.

In 450, Emperor Taiwu, accusing Liu Song's Emperor Wen of having fostered Gai's rebellion, attacked Liu Song, putting Xuanhu (悬瓠, in modern Zhumadian, Henan) under siege for 42 days but could not capture it, and he withdrew.

Later in 450, a major political mystery occurred in Northern Wei—for reasons not completely clear now, Emperor Taiwu had Cui Hao put to death, along with his particular cadet branch of his clan and any other person named Cui from Cui's home commandery of Qinghe (清河, roughly modern Xingtai, Hebei), as well as the cadet branches of several other clans with marital relations to Cui's. The publicly announced reason was that Cui had unduly revealed imperial infamy, when he wrote and published an official history, but what Cui did was never fully stated. The modern historian Bo Yang speculated that Cui had revealed that Emperor Taiwu's grandfather Emperor Daowu had been a traitor, and also that Cui was then in a major political confrontation with Crown Prince Huang, who manufactured part of the charges against Cui. (See here for details.) However, Bo's speculation, while having some evidentiary support, is not close to being conclusively shown, and why Emperor Taiwu suddenly so rashly and so severely punished the man that he had trusted for decades is fairly unclear. (It should be further noted that during the entire incident, Cui was described as being so fearful that he could not speak a single word, which appeared highly inconsistent with Cui's personality and character, suggesting that Cui had himself been poisoned; it should be further noted that immediately after executing Cui, Emperor Taiwu expressed regret of having done so.)

In fall 450, Liu Song's Emperor Wen launched a major attack on Northern Wei, again hoping to regain the provinces south of the Yellow River, making a two-pronged attack—with the eastern prong attacking Qiaoao (碻磝, in modern Liaocheng, Shandong) and Huatai, and the western prong attacking Shancheng and Tong Pass. Under Emperor Taiwu's orders, Northern Wei forces abandoned Qiaoao while defending Huatai, and he himself headed south to relieve Qiaoao while having Crown Prince Huang head north to defend against a potential Rouran attack. The Liu Song general Wang Xuanmo (王玄谟), whose army was strong, initially received popular support among the people near Huatai, but lost that popularity when he demanded that those who joined his forces to provide a large supply of pears—800 per household. With the popular support lost, he was unable to capture Huatai quickly, and as Emperor Taiwu arrived, the Liu Song forces collapsed. Upon hearing this, although the western Liu Song forces, under command of the general Liu Wenjing (柳文景), were successful in capturing Shancheng and Tong Pass and preparing to descend into the Guanzhong region, Emperor Wen withdrew them.

In retaliation for the Liu Song attack, Emperor Taiwu launched an all-out attack against Liu Song's northern provinces. Tuoba Ren quickly captured Xuanhu and Xiangcheng (项城, in modern Zhoukou, Henan) and pillaging his way to Shouyang. Emperor Taiwu himself advanced on Pengcheng, but did not put that heavily fortified city under siege; rather, he advanced south, claiming that he would cross the Yangtze River and destroy the Liu Song capital Jiankang. Both his main army and the other branch armies that he sent out carried out heavy slaughters and arsons, laying Liu Song's Huai River region to waste. Around the new year 451, Emperor Taiwu had reached Guabu (瓜步, in modern Nanjing, Jiangsu), across the river from Jiankang, but at this point he reproposed the marriage-peace proposal he made earlier—that if Emperor Wen married a daughter to one of his grandsons, he would be willing to marry a daughter to Emperor Wen's son, Liu Jun (who was then defending Pengcheng), to establish long-term peace. Emperor Wen's crown prince Liu Shao favored the proposal, but Jiang Dan (江湛) opposed, and the marital proposal was not accepted. In spring 451, worried that his forces were being overstretched and would be attacked in the rear by the Liu Song forces garrisoned at Pengcheng and Shouyang, Emperor Taiwu began a withdraw, and on the way, insulted by the Liu Song general Zang Zhi (臧质), he put Xuyi (盱眙, in modern Huai'an, Jiangsu) under siege, and, after both sides suffered heavy losses but with the defense holding, quickly withdrew. This campaign appeared to heavily wear out both empires and demonstrated the cruel parts of Emperor Taiwu's personality well, as Sima Guang described it in this manner:

:The Wei forces laid South Yan, Xu, North Yan, Yu, Qing, and Ji Provinces to waste. The Song deaths and injuries were innumerable. When Wei forces encountered Song young men, the forces quickly beheaded them or cut them in half. The infants were pierced through with spears, and the spears were then shaken so that the infants would scream as they were spun, for entertainment. The commanderies and counties that Wei forces went through were burned and slaughtered, and not even grass was left. When sparrows returned in the spring, they could not find houses to build nest on, so they had to do so in forests. Wei soldiers and horses also suffered casualties of more than half, and the Xianbei people were all complaining.

Another part of Emperor Taiwu's personality that was revealed as how, even as the states were engaging wars, he was maintaining formal protocols of détente. For example, when he was outside of Pengcheng, he requested Liu Jun supply him with wine and sugercanes, while offering Liu Jun a gift of camels, mules, and coats. Later, he requested oranges and gambling supplies from Liu Jun, while offering Liu Jun blankets, salts, and pickled beans. Similar things happened as he was at Guabu, as he requested and sent gifts to and from Emperor Wen. (How Zang aggravated him was by sending him urine when he requested wine, thus breaking the pattern of formal exchanges of gifts.)

In 451, there would be further political turmoil, with Crown Prince Huang and his associates being the victims. Crown Prince Huang had been considered able and all-seeing, but overly trusting of his associates, while privately managing farms and orchards and receiving profits from them. Crown Prince Huang greatly disliked the eunuch Zong Ai, and Zong decided to act first, accusing Crown Prince Huang's associates Chou'ni Daosheng (仇泥道盛) and Ren Pingcheng (任平城) of crimes, and Chou'ni and Ren were executed. Further, many other associates of Crown Prince Huang were dragged into the incident and executed. Crown Prince Huang himself grew ill in anxiety, and died in summer 451. Soon, however, Emperor Taiwu found out that Crown Prince Huang was not guilty, and became heavily regretful of his actions in pursuing the crown prince's associates. He did not create a new crown prince, although he briefly created Crown Prince Huang's son Tuoba Jun the Prince of Gaoyang—but then cancelled that creation, figuring that the heir of the crown prince should not be created a mere imperial prince, suggesting that he intended for Tuoba Jun to inherit the throne.

Because of how much Emperor Taiwu missed Crown Prince Huang, Zong Ai became anxious, and in spring 452 he assassinated Emperor Taiwu. Initially, a number of officials were going to make Emperor Taiwu's son Tuoba Han (拓拔翰) the Prince of Dongping emperor, but Zong also had bad relations with Tuoba Han, and so falsely issued orders in the name of Empress Helian to make another son of Emperor Taiwu's, Tuoba Yu the Prince of Nan'an, emperor, while putting Tuoba Han to death.

Family

Consorts and Issue:

• Empress Taiwu, of the Helian clan (太武皇后 赫连氏; d. 453)

• Empress Jing'ai, of the He clan (敬哀皇后 贺氏; d. 428)

　• Tuoba Huang, Emperor Jingmu (景穆皇帝 拓跋晃; 428–451), first son

• Zhaoyi, of the Yujiulü clan (左昭仪 郁久闾氏)

　• Tuoba Yu, Prince Nan'anyin (南安隐王 拓跋馀; d. 452)

• Jiaofang, of the Yue clan (椒房 越氏)

　• Tuoba Fuluo, Prince Jin (晋王 拓跋伏罗; d. 447), second son

• Jiaofang, of the Shu clan (椒房 舒氏)

　• Tuoba Han, Prince Dongping (东平王 拓跋翰; d. 452), third son

• Jiaofang, of the Fu clan (椒房 弗氏)

　• Tuoba Tan, Prince Linhuaixuan (临淮宣王 拓跋谭; d. 452), fourth son

• Jiaofang, of the Fu clan (椒房 伏氏)

　• Tuoba Jian, Prince Guangyangjian (广阳简王 拓跋建; d. 452), fifth son

• Unknown

　• Tuoba Xiao'er (拓跋小儿)

　• Tuoba Mao'er (拓跋猫儿)

　• Tuoba Zhen (拓跋真)

　• Tuoba Hutou (拓跋虎头)

　• Tuoba Longtou (拓跋龙头)

　• Princess Shanggu (上谷公主)

　　• Married Yi Gui of Henan, Prince Xiping (河南 乙瑰), and had issue (one son)

Ancestry

In popular culture

• Portrayed by Canti Lau in the 2016 Chinese TV series The Princess Weiyoung.