Early life

The Yang clan of Hongnong (弘农杨氏) were claimed as ancestors by the Sui Emperors, similar to the Tang Emperors' claim of the Longxi Li clan. Yang Jian's clan claimed descent from the Han Dynasty general Yang Zhen. Yang Zhen's eighth-generation descendant Yang Xuan (杨铉) served as a commandery governor for a Yan state (Former Yan or Later Yan) during the Sixteen Kingdoms Period, and his descendants subsequently served the Northern Wei Dynasty. Yang Jian's father Yang Zhong (杨忠) followed the late-Northern Wei general Yuwen Tai and later became prominent in the branch successor state of Northern Wei, Western Wei, under Yuwen's regency. Yang Jian's mother Lady Lü gave birth to him at a Buddhist temple in Pingyi (冯翊, in modern Weinan, Shaanxi). A Buddhist nun was impressed with his appearance, and raised him in his early years. Yang Jian attended the imperial college for the sons of the nobility and high officials. When he was 14 years old, he was appointed to serve in the military under Yuwen Tai.

In 555, on account of Yang Zhong's accomplishments, Yang Jian received several official ranks, including the title of the Duke of Chengji County (成纪县公). In 557, Dugu Xin, impressed with Yang Jian, gave his daughter, Empress Dugu Qieluo, to Yang and made her his wife. He was 16, and she was 13. After Yuwen Tai's son Emperor Ming of Northern Zhou came to the throne later that year, Yang Jian was made the vice minister of internal affairs, and he was created the greater title of Duke of Daxing Commandery (大兴郡公). Subsequently, during the reign of Emperor Ming's brother Emperor Wu, Yang Jian was further promoted in military authority. After Yang Zhong's death in 568, he inherited the title of Duke of Sui. In 573, Emperor Wu took Yang Jian's daughter Yang Lihua to be the wife and crown princess of his son Yuwen Yun the Crown Prince, and further honored Yang Jian. It was said that, however, that Yang Jian was so unusual in his appearance that some of Emperor Wu's close associates suspected Yang Jian of eventually harboring treasonous intent. Both Emperor Wu's brother Yuwen Xian the Prince of Qi and the general Wang Gui (王轨) were said to have suggested that Emperor Wu execute Yang Jian, but Emperor Wu resisted. Still, Yang Jian heard rumors and tried to hide his own talent to avoid trouble. It was not until 575 when Emperor Wu involved Yang Jian in a major campaign against rival Northern Qi. Yang Jian also participated in the 576–577 campaign that saw Emperor Wu being able to destroy Northern Qi and seize its territory.

In 578, Emperor Wu died, and Yuwen Yun took the throne as Emperor Xuan. Emperor Xuan immediately began to show erratic behavior, and while he created Yang Jian's daughter Crown Princess Yang empress, he suspected Yang Jian deeply, although he made Yang Jian the minister of defense. In 579, Emperor Xuan passed the throne to his young son Yuwen Chan (by his concubine Consort Zhu Manyue) (as Emperor Jing) and became retired emperor (with the atypical title of "Emperor Tianyuan" (Tianyuan Huangdi), but continued to exercise imperial powers. On one occasion, he became so suspicious of Yang Jian that he stated to Empress Yang, "I will surely slaughter your clan!" He then summoned Yang Jian to the palace, with instructions to kill him if his expressions betrayed any worries, but Yang Jian arrived without showing any unusual emotions, and avoided being killed. On another occasion, Empress Yang displeased Emperor Xuan, and Emperor Xuan ordered her to commit suicide. When Duchess Dugu heard this, she went to the palace to beg Emperor Xuan's forgiveness, and Emperor Xuan eventually spared Empress Yang.

Regency

In summer 581, with Emperor Xuan intending to conquer Chen Dynasty, he sent Yang Jian to be the commandant at Yang Province (扬州, roughly modern Lu'an, Anhui) to prepare for the campaign against Chen. Before Yang Jian could depart, however, Emperor Xuan suddenly grew seriously ill. Two of Emperor Xuan's close associates, Liu Fang (刘昉) and Zheng Yi (郑译), who were friends of Yang's, summoned Yang to the palace to prepare to serve as regent, overriding the desire of another closet associate, Yan Zhiyi (颜之仪), to have Emperor Xuan's uncle Yuwen Zhao (宇文招) the Prince of Zhao appointed regent. Emperor Xuan soon died, and Zheng and Liu issued an edict in Emperor Xuan's name appointing Yang regent.

Yang immediately pleased the officials at the capital by abolishing the wastefulness and cruel policies of Emperor Xuan, and he himself demonstrated both hard work and frugality, which impressed the people. Fearful of the intentions of the general Yuchi Jiong, who was then the commandant at Xiang Province (相州, roughly modern Handan, Hebei), he summoned Yuchi back to the capital. Yuchi, however, refused, and believing that Yang's intentions were to usurp the throne, rose at Xiang Province against Yang. He was supported by the generals Sima Xiaonan (司马消难), the commandant at Xun Province (勋州, roughly modern Xiaogan, Hubei) and Wang Qian (王谦), the commandant at Yi Province (roughly modern Chengdu, Sichuan). However, just 68 days after Yuchi rose in rebellion, the general Wei Xiaokuan defeated Yuchi, and Yuchi committed suicide. Wang was also soon defeated, and Sima fled to Chen. To prevent Yuchi's headquarters at Yecheng to be used again as a base of opposition against him, Yang Jian had Yecheng (Northern Qi's old capital) torn down.

During Yuchi's campaign, Zhou princes like Yuwen Xian Prince of Bi and Yuwen Zhao made attempts to assassinate Yang, but failed. In response, Yang put Yuwen Xian, Yuwen Zhao and Zhao's younger brother Yuwen Sheng (宇文盛) the Prince of Yue and their sons to death, and after Yuchi was defeated, he began to slaughter the Yuwen clan in earnest. He also had Emperor Jing promote his titles quickly, and he changed his surname back to Yang. Around the new year 581, his title was promoted to Prince of Sui (随王). In spring 581, he had Emperor Jing yield the throne to him, ending Northern Zhou and establishing Sui Dynasty, as its Emperor Wen. (His use of "Sui" as his new dynasty name was typical of Chinese historical dynastic transitions—using the old fief name as the new dynasty's name—but he, believing that the character for his fief Sui (随) to contain a "辶" radical, denoting "walking" and therefore a lack of permanence in the regime, removed "辶" from the character, rendering it "隋".)

Early Kaihuang era

Emperor Wen abolished Northern Zhou's governmental organization of six departments, instead establishing five main bureaus—executive bureau (Shangshu Sheng (尚书省)), examination bureau (Menxia Sheng (门下省)), legislative bureau (Neishǐ Sheng (内史省)), Palace Library, and eunuch bureau (Neishì Sheng (内侍省—note different tone and character versus 'legislative bureau')), with two additional independent agencies, 11 other independent departments, and 12 military commands. He posthumously honored his father Yang Zhong and mother Lady Lu as emperor and empress. He created his wife Duchess Dugu empress and their oldest son Yang Yong crown prince; he created his brothers and his other sons imperial princes. He initially created Northern Zhou's Emperor Jing the Duke of Jie, but soon slaughtered all grandsons of Yuwen Tai, and eventually put the Duke of Jie to death as well. He entrusted most of the important governmental matters to his officials Gao Jiong, Yang Su, and Su Wei. Agreeing with some officials' assertions that Northern Zhou fell because its imperial princes lacked power to protect the central government, he sent his sons out to key provinces with broad powers. He further commissioned the official Pei Zheng (裴政) to carry out a project of simplifying the penal code and decrease the penalty from the harsh laws—a reform that was later largely accepted by the succeeding dynasties.

Emperor Wen did not maintain as submissive a relationship with the Göktürks, which brought resentment from the Göktürks' Ϊšbara qaγan Ashina Helu. The qaγan's wife, the Xianbei princess Qianjin, Yuwen Zhao's daughter, particularly hated Emperor Wen for destroying the Northern Zhou. Ashina Helu therefore carried out a series of border attacks against Sui, allied with Gao Baoning (高宝宁), the former Northern Qi general who was still holding Ying Province (营州, roughly modern Zhaoyang, Liaoning). In response, under advice from the general Zhangsun Sheng (长孙晟), Emperor Wen carried out the strategy of placating Ashina Helu's subordinate qaγans—his uncle Datou Khan Ashina Dianjue (阿史那玷厥), cousin Abo Khan Ashina Daxianbian (阿史那大暹便), and brother Ashina Chuluohou (阿史那处罗侯) – to create dissension within the Göktürks, and gradually, the strategy worked, causing the Göktürks to be unable to take unified actions against Sui.

In 581, Emperor Wen commissioned a major attack on Chen, and while it was initially successful, Emperor Wen withdrew the attack in spring 582 after hearing that Emperor Xuan of Chen had died and believing it wrongful to attack a state whose emperor had just died.

In 582, believing that Chang'an was too small of a city, Emperor Wen built a new capital nearby, which he named Daxing, and in spring 583 he moved the capital to Daxing. (From that point forward, Daxing and Chang'an became interchangeable names, although by the time of succeeding Tang Dynasty, the new capital was known again just as Chang'an.)

Also in 582, Emperor Wen, thankful for the refusal by the vassal Emperor Ming of Western Liang to support Yuchi Jiong in 580, withdrew his forces from Western Liang's capital Jiangling, permitting Western Liang a degree of self-governance. He also took Emperor Ming's daughter as the wife and princess to his son, Yang Guang the Prince of Jin. (After Emperor Ming's death in 585 and succession by his son Emperor Jing of Western Liang, however, Emperor Wen reestablished the post of commandant of Jiangling and again put Western Liang territory under military control.)

By spring 583, the Göktürks' internal dissension had become serious enough that Emperor Wen felt comfortable enough to commission his brother Yang Shuang (杨爽) the Prince of Wei to command a major attack against Ashina Shetu. Yang Shuang achieved a great victory, and part of his army, commanded by the general Yin Shou (阴寿), defeated Gao, forcing Gao to try to flee to the Qidan, but on the way, Gao was killed by his own subordinates, ending the last bit of Northern Qi resistance. After the defeat, the various subordinate khans further engaged in battles among themselves and against Ashina Shetu, with Sui watching by, refusing to give aid to any side. By 584, Ashina Shetu submitted to Sui, and even the resentful Princess Qianjin referred to Emperor Wen as "father." He created her the Princess Dayi.

In summer 584, believing that the Wei River, on account of its sandbars and treacherous waters, was becoming too difficult of a route for food transport to Daxing, commissioned the official Yuwen Kai (宇文恺) to construct a canal between Daxing and Tong Pass, parallel to the Wei River, named the Guangtong Canal (广通渠), greatly easing the transport of food and other supplies to the capital region Guanzhong. Nevertheless, on account of a famine in Guanzhong in fall 584, Emperor Wen briefly took up residence in Luoyang.

In 586, the officials Liang Shiyan (梁士彦) the Duke of Cheng, Yuwen Xin (宇文忻) the Duke of Qi, and Liu Fang the Duke of Shu—all three of whom were friends of Emperor Wen but all of whom believed that they had been slighted by Emperor Wen—were accused of plotting rebellion, and all three were executed.

In spring 587, continuing his canal-building regime, Emperor Wen built the Shanyang Canal (山阳渎) between the Yangtze River and the Huai River to improve the transport of material between those two rivers.

In fall 587, Emperor Wen summoned Western Liang's Emperor Jing to Chang'an to meet him. Emperor Jing complied with the direction. While Emperor Jing was away, however, Emperor Wen, believing that Jiangling would not be guarded well, sent his general Cui Hongdu (崔弘度) to Jiangling. Emperor Jing's uncle Xiao Yan (萧岩) the Prince of Anping and Xiao Huan (萧瓛) the Prince of Yixing instead believed that Cui was intending to attack the city, and they took the populace of the city and surrendered to the Chen general Chen Huiji (陈慧纪), the cousin to Chen's emperor Chen Shubao. In response, Emperor Wen abolished Western Liang, directly seizing its territory, while creating Emperor Jing the Duke of Ju. Emperor Wen, who had been planning to conquer Chen for years, now further enhanced his planning in earnest. In spring 588, Emperor Wen publicly announced a campaign against Chen, commanded by Yang Guang, another of his sons Yang Jun the Prince of Qin, and Yang Su, with Yang Guang in overall command. Gao Jiong served as Yang Guang's assistant.

In spring 589, the Sui general Heruo Bi (贺若弼) crossed the Yangtze at Jingkou (京口, in modern Zhenjiang, Jiangsu), and the Sui general Han Qinhu (韩擒虎) crossed the Yangtze at Caishi (采石, in modern Ma'anshan, Anhui). Meanwhile, Yang Su was advancing from the west down the Yangtze, and Yang Jun was stationed in the middle Yangtze region, cutting off any Chen forces that might have been able to come to the aid of Chen's capital Jiankang. Heruo soon defeated and captured the Chen general Xiao Mohe, who was making a final attempt to repel Heruo and Han's forces from Jiankang, and Jiankang fell immediately after. Chen Shubao was captured but not harmed. Rather, he and his clan members were transported to Chang'an, where Emperor Wen treated them as honored guests. Some Chen generals briefly resisted, but soon the Sui had control. The Southern and Northern Dynasties period was over, and Sui had united China. Much as how he had torn down Yecheng after Yuchi defeat, Emperor Wen tore down Jiankang, establishing only a minor garrison at the nearby Shitou as Jiang Province (蒋州).

Late Kaihuang era

In 590, apparently jealous of the talent of the official Li Delin, who had been key in his takeover of power as regent and who had contributed to the strategies in conquering Chen, Emperor Wen, believing in several false accusations against Li, removed Li from his office and made him a provincial governor. Li would not return to the central government for the rest of his life.

After Chen was conquered, Sui began to apply its laws over Chen's former territory—which brought resentment from the gentry, as they had been treated preferentially under Chen and its predecessor dynasties in the south. Su Wei further wrote a work known as the Five Teachings (五教, Wu Jiao) which is no longer extant but thought to be a work about loyalty to Sui and ordered that all former Chen subjects read and memorize it, leading to further resentment. When a rumor spread that Sui would move Chen subjects into the Guanzhong region in 590, nearly all of former Chen realm rose in rebellion, but in an unorganized manner. Emperor Wen sent Yang Su to quell the rebellions, and the rebels were no match for Yang Su; within the year, the rebellions were put down.

In 591, Tuyuhun sought peace and, as per custom, its khan Murong Shifu (慕容世伏) offered his daughter to be a concubine for Emperor Wen. Emperor Wen accepted the peace offer but declined the offer of Murong Shifu's daughter. (It was, however, around this time that he did take Chen Shubao's sister and another woman from Jiankang, Consort Cai, as concubines, although it appeared likely that Consort Cai was never able to have sexual relations with Emperor Wen while Empress Dugu was alive; Consort Chen, as the sister of a submissive former sovereign, might have had sexual relations with Emperor Wen on an infrequent basis, but it is not clear.)

In spring 592, the official He Tuo (何妥), who, despite his senior status over Su Wei's son Su Kui (苏夔), was losing out against Su Kui over a debate as to the designation of official music styles for Sui. In anger, He Tuo accused Su Wei of factionalism, and after investigation by Emperor Wen's son Yang Xiu and the official Yu Qingze (ted zhang), Su Wei was removed from office. After Su Wei's removal, Yang Su and Gao Jiong became effectively the co-prime ministers. When Heruo Bi, who believed that he should have been prime minister, complained, Emperor Wen removed him from his post as well and stripped him of his ducal title, but restored the ducal title a year later. (Su Wei, however, was back in his post at the latest by 595.)

Also in 592, Emperor Wen, reacting to an overflowing abundance of food and silk in the governmental stores, reduced the taxes heavily, and he also sent messengers around central China, redistributing land to give the poor farming land.

In 593, Emperor Wen commissioned a summer vacation palace, Renshou Palace (仁寿宫, in modern Linyou County, Shaanxi), away from Chang'an, with Yang Su in charge of the project. The palace was far more luxurious than Emperor Wen expected, and its construction cost many lives. (When it was completed in spring 595 and Emperor Wen visited the palace, he was initially very displeased with Yang Su, but Empress Dugu persuaded him that Yang Su knew that he had little other entertainment, and she awarded Yang Su much treasure to show appreciation.)

Also in 593, knowing that the Princess Dayi was still resentful of him, Emperor Wen had the official Pei Ju inform the cousin and subordinate khan to the Göktürks' Dulan Khan, Ashina Yongyulü, the Tuli Khan Ashina Rangan (son of Ashina Chuluohou) that he would let Ashina Rangan marry a Sui princess if Ashina Rangan was able to get Princess Dayi killed. Ashina Rangan, in response, accused Princess Dayi of adultery, and Ashina Yongyulü killed her and requested another marriage with Sui. Instead, Emperor Wen agreed to marry a princess to Ashina Rangan, in order to create greater friction between them.

In 594, in response to another famine in the Guanzhong region, Emperor Wen again temporarily took up residence in Luoyang. He also, to share in some of his people's suffering, abstained from meat for a year.

Late in 594, Yang Guang submitted a petition that Emperor Wen carry out the ancient ceremonies of worshipping the heaven and earth gods at Mount Tai. Emperor Wen declined to carry out a full set of ceremonies due to its costs, but in spring 595 carried out an abbreviated version to seek blessings from the gods due to the ongoing drought.

Also in spring 595, Emperor Wen ordered that no weapons be held by private individuals and that all of them be collected and destroyed, although he exempted the border provinces from this edict.

In 596, Emperor Wen created a daughter of a clansman the Princess Guanghua and married her to Murong Shifu, to cement the peaceful relations with Tuyuhun.

In 597, Cuan Wan (爨玩), the chief of the Nanning Tribe (南宁夷, located in modern Qujing, Yunnan), rebelled. Emperor Wen sent the general Shi Wansui (史万岁) the Duke of Taiping against Cuan, forcing him to surrender. Initially, Shi was to take Cuan to Chang'an to be presented to Emperor Wen, but Cuan bribed Shi, and so Shi allowed him to stay. Also in 597, Li Guangshi (李光仕), the chief of the aborigine people in Gui Province (桂州, roughly modern Guilin, Guangxi), also rebelled. Emperor Wen sent the generals Wang Shiji (王世积) and Zhou Fashang (周法尚) against Li, and Zhou was able to defeat and kill Li. However, in the fall, Li Shixian (李世贤), who might have been related to Li Guangshi, rebelled at Gui Province, and Emperor Wen sent Yu Qingze the Duke of Lu to attack Li Shixian; Yu was successful in suppressing the rebellion. Subsequently, however, Yu's brother-in-law Zhao Shizhu (赵什住), who had an affair with Yu's concubine, falsely accused Yu of treason, and around the new year 598, Yu was executed.

Also in 597, Emperor Wen felt that the punishment for official misconduct was too light, and authorized that supervising officials would be permitted to batter their subordinates with large canes if they felt that the legally prescribed punishment was too light in comparison to the degree of misconduct. Further, also believing that there was too much theft and robbery throughout the realm, he increased the punishment for theft to death—a law that he subsequently abolished.

Also in 597, Emperor Wen's son Yang Jun the Prince of Qin, the commandant at Bing Province (并州, roughly Taiyuan, Shanxi), was poisoned, but not to death, by his jealous wife Princess Cui. After Yang Jun was taken back to Chang'an for treatment, Emperor Wen discovered that Yang Jun had been wasteful at his post, and removed him from all of his offices, allowing him to only retain the title of imperial prince. When Princess Cui's poisoning was discovered, Emperor Wen ordered Yang Jun to divorce her, and subsequently ordered her to commit suicide. When Liu Sheng (刘升) and Yang Su suggested that the punishment against Yang Jun was overly severe, Emperor Wen responded to Yang Su:

:I am the father of just five sons, not the father of all people over the land. If I agreed with you, does that mean I have to draft a Penal Code for the Emperor's Sons? Even a man as kind as the Duke of Zhou executed his brothers, the lords of Guan and Cai, for their crimes. I am nowhere as capable as the Duke of Zhou, so I can break my own laws?

Also in 597, Ashina Rangan arrived at Chang'an, and Emperor Wen gave him the daughter of a clansman, whom he created the Princess Anyi, to be his wife, and awarded Ashina Rangan with much treasure, to try to break the bond between him and Ashina Yongyulü. From this point on, whenever Ashina Yongyulü would prepare to attack, Ashina Rangan would report his plans to Emperor Wen, allowing Sui forces to become prepared.

In 598, King Yeongyang of Goguryeo attacked Ying Province, and while the governor of Ying Province, Wei Chong (韦冲), fought off the Goguryeo attack, Emperor Wen was angered. He sent his son Yang Liang the Prince of Han and Wang Shiji to serve as commanding generals, with Gao Jiong serving as Yang Liang's assistant, and the former Chen general Zhou Luohou (周罗睺) serving as the commander of the navy, to attack Goguryeo. However, the forces ran into food supply problems, and the ships ran into a storm and suffered great losses. Both at sea and on the ground, Goguryeo forces inflicted heavy losses on the Sui forces. Nevertheless, King Yeongyang ceased his raids into China and so Emperor Wen called off the campaign against Goguryeo, unable to commit yet another enormous force to punish Goguryeo after the recent losses. As King Wideok of Baekje offered assistance to Sui during the campaign, this precipitated a conflict between Goguryeo and Baekje.

Also in 598, Cuan Wan rebelled again, and Yang Xiu accused Shi of accepting bribes from Cuan earlier. Emperor Wen considered executing Shi, but ultimately chose only to remove him from his posts, and it appeared soon after Shi was restored to his post.

In 599, after Ashina Rangan reported that Ashina Yongyulü was planning to attack, Emperor Wen took preemptive action and had Gao Jiong, Yang Su, and Yan Rong (燕荣) command a three-pronged attack against Ashina Yongyulü, with Yang Liang in nominal command but not at the frontline. In response, Ashina Yongyulü and Ashina Dianjue made a joint attack against Ashina Rangan, defeating him and largely seizing his tribe. Ashina Rangan fled to Sui, and Emperor Wen treated him as an honored guest. Subsequently, both Gao Jiong and Yang Su engaged Göktürk forces and repelled them.

Also in 599, with Wang Shiji's subordinate Huangfu Xiaoxie (皇甫孝谐) accusing Wang of treason after Wang refused to shield Huangfu after he committed crimes, Emperor Wen believed Huangfu and executed Wang.

By this point, Yang Yong the Crown Prince had lost the favor of both Emperor Wen and Empress Dugu, over his being overly wasteful (which displeased Emperor Wen) and having many concubines (which displeased Empress Dugu). They therefore considered deposing him and replacing him with Yang Guang. When Empress Dugu hinted as such, Gao Jiong stated clear opposition. Meanwhile, Emperor Wen himself had engaged in sexual relations with Yuchi Jiong's granddaughter, who had been made a servant after her grandfather's defeat—and when Empress Dugu found out, she had Yuchi Jiong's granddaughter killed. Emperor Wen was exceedingly angry and rode away from the palace on a horse, returning to the palace only at the urging of Gao and Yang Su—but with Gao further angering Empress Dugu when Gao referred to her as "a woman." In 599, Gao was accused of associating with Wang Shiji and removed from his posts. Subsequently, Gao was accused of cursing Emperor Wen, but when the sentence of death was recommended, Emperor Wen commented that he could not kill Gao soon after killing Yu and Wang, and therefore only reduced Gao to commoner rank.

In winter 599, Emperor Wen created Ashina Rangan Qimin Khan, and commissioned Zhangsun Sheng to build the city of Dali (大利, in modern Hohhot) to house Ashian Rangan's people, and also sent an army to protect Ashina Rangan. By now, the Princess Anyi had died, and Emperor Wen married another daughter of a clansman, whom he created the Princess Yicheng (义成公主), to marry Ashina Rangan. Soon thereafter, Ashina Yongyulü was assassinated, and Ashina Dianjue declared himself Bujia Khan. In summer 600, Ashina Dianjue attacked Ashina Rangan, and Sui forces fought off Ashina Dianjue's attack, further causing Ashina Rangan to be grateful to Sui.

In fall 600, with Yang Guang and Yang Su forming a faction, with tacit support of Empress Dugu, they had Yang Yong's associate Ji Wei (姬威) falsely accuse Yang Yong of plotting treason. Emperor Wen deposed Yang Yong and replaced him with Yang Guang. Emperor Wen also put a number of officials whom he believed to be part of Yang Yong's faction, including Shi and Yuan Min (元旻) the Duke of Wuyuan, to death.

Renshou era

In 602, Empress Dugu died, and Emperor Wen was greatly saddened. Thereafter, he began to engage in sexual relations with his concubines, favoring Consort Chen and Consort Cai.

Also in 602, Yang Guang, believing that Yang Xiu would eventually create trouble for him, had Yang Su collect evidence of Yang Xiu's wastefulness and use of items that were only appropriate for emperors. Yang Su submitted the evidence to Emperor Wen, and Emperor Wen, in anger, recalled Yang Xiu to the capital. After Yang Xiu arrived at the capital, Yang Guang further manufactured evidence that Yang Xiu had cursed Emperor Wen and Yang Liang. In anger, Emperor Wen reduced Yang Xiu to commoner rank and put him under house arrest.

In 603, Ashina Dianjue, faced with rebellions from the Tiele and Pugu (仆骨) tribes, surrendered to Ashina Rangan. By now, Ashina Rangan became the undisputed khan of the Göktürks.

In spring 604, Emperor Wen, as per his custom, went to Renshou Palace to avoid the heat, despite warnings from the sorcerer Zhangchou Taiyi (章仇太翼) that if he went, he would never return. While there, he grew ill, and in fall 604, he died. He was buried at the Yangling District's Tailing (泰陵) tumulus mausoleum, with Empress Dugu (though not in the same burial chamber).

How Emperor Wen died, however, is a matter of historical controversy. Most traditional historians relay and believe an account in which, while Emperor Wen was ill, Yang Guang tried to rape Consort Chen. When she reported the attempted rape to Emperor Wen, he became angry and had the officials Liu Shu (柳述, the husband of his daughter Yang Awu (杨阿五) the Princess Lanling) and Yuan Yan (元岩) the Duke of Longgu summon Yang Yong, intending to restore him. When Yang Guang found out, he, in association with Yang Su, had Liu and Yuan arrested, and then sent his associate Zhang Heng (张衡) to kill Emperor Wen, and Zhang did so. Soon thereafter, he forced Consorts Chen and Cai to become his concubines and had Yang Yong put to death, and only then announced Emperor Wen's death and took the throne (as Emperor Yang).

The historian Sima Guang, in his Zizhi Tongjian, borrowing parts of analyses from the Book of Sui and the History of the Northern Dynasties, opined:

Emperor Wen also established seven orchestras comprising musicians from across Asia at his court; these orchestras were expanded to nine by his son Emperor Yang of Sui.

Family

Consorts and Issue:

• Empress Wenxian, of the Henan Dugu clan (文献皇后 河南独孤氏; 544–602), personal name Jialuo (伽罗)

　• Princess Leping (乐平公主; 561–609), personal name Lihua (丽华), first daughter

　　• Married Yuwen Yun (559–580) in 573, and had issue (one daughter)

　• Princess Xiang (襄公主)

　　• Married Li Changya, Duke Heyang (李长雅)

　• Yang Yong, Prince of Fangling (房陵王 杨勇; 568–604), first son

　• Yang Guang, Emperor Yang (炀皇帝 杨广; 569–618), second son

　• Princess Guangping (广平公主)

　　• Married Yuwen Jingli, Duke Ande (宇文静礼), and had issue (two sons)

　• Yang Jun, Prince Xiao of Qin (秦孝王 杨俊; 571–600), third son

　• Unnamed daughter

　• Yang Xiu, Prince of Shu (蜀王 杨秀; 573–618), fourth son

　• Princess Lanling (兰陵公主; 573–604), fifth daughter

　　• Married Wang Fengxiao (王奉孝; d. 583) in 580

　　• Married Liu Shu of Hedong, Duke Jian'an (河东 柳述) in 585

　• Yang Liang, Prince of Han (汉王 杨谅; 575–605), fifth son

• Furen, of the Yingchuan Chen clan (宣华夫人 颍川陈氏; 577–605)

• Furen, of the Cai clan (容华夫人 蔡氏)

Ancestry

生平经历

出生

杨坚于西魏大统七年六月十三癸丑夜（541年7月21日）生于冯翊般若尼寺，寺中女尼智仙为其取乳名「那罗延」，在梵语中意为「金刚不坏」。杨坚之父是西魏随国公、北周柱国、大司空杨忠，生母吕氏。其妻独孤皇后为北周时八大柱国之一独孤信之女独孤伽罗（梵语：तगर/Tagara，意为「黑沈香」）。

其长女嫁北周宣帝（宇文贇）为后，地位显赫。杨坚在北周时曾官拜骠骑大将军，又封为大兴郡公，后袭父爵柱国，北周武帝时任隋州刺史，参加过北周灭北齐之战。

夺取政权

杨坚壮年时曾随北周武帝（宇文邕）伐灭北齐统一华北，不久后武帝于宣政元年（578年）病逝，北周宣帝（宇文贇）即位。北周宣帝行为乖戾，诛杀元老重臣，将国政交给东宫的旧僚郑译，引起朝野恐慌。大成元年（579年）二月十九日，宇文贇下诏传位于仅7岁的长子宇文阐（北周静帝），并改年号为大象，自称天元皇帝。

大象二年（580年）3月31日，北周静帝宇文阐任命随国公杨坚世子杨勇为洛州总管、东京小冢宰，统辖故北齐旧地。在先前的2月20日，罢左、右丞相之官，改杨坚为大丞相。

大象二年（580年）5月11乙未日（6月8日），北周宣帝病逝。近臣刘昉、郑译等和杨坚有旧，并且杨坚有「重名」，矫诏谋引杨坚辅政。据记载杨坚开始是：「固辞，不敢当」。但是刘昉警告他：「公不为，昉自为之」，杨坚遂接受此建议，之后郑译等对北周宣帝病逝的死讯秘不发丧，便以太上皇的名义假传圣旨，以杨坚为总知中外兵马事，杨坚于是集军政大权于一身。

宣帝胞弟宇文赞为右大丞相，貌似尊崇，其实无实权，宇文赞本人年未及二十，见识庸劣，在刘昉蛊惑下，回府不理政事。杨坚手握军权后，恐北周诸王在外叛变，假借护送千金公主出嫁突厥为由，召赵王宇文招、陈王宇文纯、越王宇文盛、代王宇文达、滕王宇文逌进京朝见，并除去军权。

杨坚等人秘不发丧和假传圣旨的主张最初被司书上士颜之仪反对，但刘昉自知不能使颜之仪屈服，就代他签字，各诸卫在接到假诏书的情况下，军权就完全被杨坚控制。其后，杨坚又向颜之仪索取皇帝符节玉玺，但遭拒绝，遂大怒，想斩了颜之仪，但顾虑到颜之仪在民间声望很高，便把他贬到西边当郡守。

杨坚专政后不久，相州总管尉迟迥发兵讨伐杨坚，关东诸州群起响应，益州总管王谦也起兵进攻杨坚。杨坚派出韦孝宽、王谊等迅速平定叛乱，后又尽杀周室诸王。尉迟迥起兵时奉赵王宇文招留在赵国的幼子号令，宇文泰侄孙荥州刺史邵国公宇文胄响应，为杨素所败被杀。尉迟迥兵败后，宇文招幼子下落不明。

大象二年（580年）六月，明帝子雍州牧毕王宇文贤与五王（即宇文泰尚在世的五个儿子）谋杀杨坚，事泄，杨坚杀宇文贤及其三子，但对五王不问。七月，赵王宇文招布下鸿门宴，企图密谋暗杀杨坚，于是把杨坚邀请到寝室饮宴，命儿子宇文员、宇文贯以及王妃弟弟鲁封等身带佩刀站在左右，帷席之间都暗藏了兵器，在室后埋伏了壮士打算乘势刺杀杨坚。不料在杨坚身边心腹拓跋胄的掩护下没能成功。12月31日，杨坚在得知赵王宇文招想谋杀他，便诬陷赵王宇文招及越王宇文盛谋反，赵王和越王的诸子也皆被杨坚一起诛杀。十二月，又杀宇文泰仅剩的两个儿子代王宇文达、滕王宇文逌及二人诸子。同年并杀宇文泰孙冀王宇文绚。

大象二年（580年）12月2日，北周静帝宇文阐晋升随国公、大丞相杨坚为相国，总管全国文武百官；撤销全国都督、大冢宰之号称号，晋封随王，以安陆等二十郡为随国采邑，启奏时不再称名，享有九锡之礼；随国公、大丞相杨坚虚心「谦让」仅接受王爵和十郡作为采邑。直到大象三年（581年）2月4日，随王杨坚才接受了北周静帝宇文阐所赏赐的相国、总管全国文武百官、九锡之命，立随国文武百官。

大象三年（581年）2月14日，北周相国、随王杨坚「顺应人心」逼迫北周静帝宇文阐让出皇位登基，于是北周静帝下诏禅让，移居其他宫殿。2月19日，杨坚大开杀戒，把北周宇文皇族诸子全部屠之，李德林一再规劝却遭杨坚一句「君书生，不足与议此！」所拒，于是北周太祖宇文泰的孙儿谯公宇文乾恽；北周闵帝宇文觉孙纪公宇文湜；北周明帝宇文毓诸子酆公宇文贞、宋公宇文寔；北周武帝宇文邕诸子汉公宇文赞、秦公宇文贽、曹公宇文允、道公宇文充、蔡公宇文兑、荆公宇文元；北周宣帝宇文贇诸子莱公宇文衎、郢公宇文术等13人及他们的儿子们皆被处死。而李德林也因与杨坚意见不合，官职爵位从此没能升过。大定元年二月十四甲子日（581年3月4日），杨坚便以「受禅」的名义篡位称帝，受册、玉玺，改戴纱帽、身穿黄袍；入御临光殿，改国号为「大隋」，定都大兴，是为隋朝也，改元开皇，大赦天下。

杨坚废北周静帝，自立为帝，改元开皇，建立隋朝。从他专政到称帝，前后不过10个月时间，「得国之易，无有如杨坚者」，杨坚之所以能这么快称帝，与北周末期军政大权迁移于汉族人、受到汉族官员欢迎、北周府兵强大有关。

5月9日，杨坚又暗中派人杀死介公宇文阐（年仅9岁），后表示大为震惊，发布死讯，隆重祭悼，葬于恭陵。同年，杨坚又杀宇文泰侄曾孙豳国公宇文洽、宇文洽叔父杞国公宇文椿及其诸子等。宇文椿弟天水郡公宇文众不聪明不大说话，杨坚一度视其为继任介国公人选，但最终仍杀宇文众及其诸子，而另找远支族人宇文洛继嗣。

北防突厥

隋文帝在北防突厥（隋与突厥之战）成功后，603年，隋朝击败占据漠北的达头可汗，次年，启民可汗称隋朝皇帝为圣人可汗，南迁的突厥部众成为隋朝的属国。隋文帝为归附的启民可汗率领的突厥人筑金河、定襄二城于河套。

统一全国

杨坚平定叛乱之后，因为位于江陵一隅之地的西梁弱小且长期依附北朝，其统一天下的对手只剩下南方的陈朝。开皇七年九月十九辛卯日（587年10月26日），废西梁后主萧琮，西梁亡。

陈朝的兵力非常薄弱，据估计，只有十万人。 杨坚即位后，派贺若弼镇广陵、韩擒虎镇庐江，密谋灭陈。又派兵在陈国农时骚扰对方，纵火烧毁他们积蓄的粮食物资。开皇八年（588年），以杨广出六合、杨俊出襄阳、杨素带领水军出永安，共五十一万八千大军，三路大军伐陈。八年十二月杨素沿长江击破陈的沿江守军，顺流而东。但因为施文卿、沈客卿等扣留告急文书，导致陈朝无法把大军从建康调出。

九月，贺若弼和韩擒虎攻下京口、姑苏。沿江守军望风而逃，在建康城外陈军主力与贺若弼、韩擒虎八千部队激战，由于陈军不能合力，被击破。

开皇九年正月二十甲申日（589年2月10日），陈将任忠投降，引韩擒虎攻入建康城，捉住陈叔宝，陈朝亡。

不久，各地陈军或受陈后主号令投降、或抵抗隋军而被消灭，只有岭南地区受冼夫人保境据守。开皇十年（590年）八月，隋派使臣韦洸等人安抚岭南，冼夫人率众迎接隋使，岭南诸州悉为隋地。至此，天下一统。

自西晋永嘉之乱（公元316年）以来，中原和江南地区政权分裂长达273年之久，至此隋文帝再造统一之局，并开创长达167年的隋唐盛世，直至安史之乱。

政治作为

军政改革

政治方面的支持功不可没。汉人如郑译、苏威、高熲等名臣有助推动国策。杨坚亦因前朝酷刑甚多，影响民生，故命苏威等人编纂《开皇律》，修订刑律，订立国家刑法，使人民有法可守，又减省刑罚，死刑只设绞、斩二等，以示隋朝对民之宽大。在澄清吏治方面，杨坚得国以来，励精图治，兼且天资刻薄，自不容贪污枉法之行为存在。杨坚命柳盛持节巡省河北五十二州，奏免长吏赃污不称者二百馀人，州县肃然。吏治之整肃，不仅上裕国库，下纾民困，隋高祖在位时之隆盛，此亦为要因。

军事上，隋文帝改变府兵制初设时，兵农分离情况。转变为和平时期府兵耕地种田，并在折冲将军领导下进行日常训练；战争发生时，由朝廷另派将领聚集各地府兵出征的「兵农合一」的制度。

地方行政方面，文帝鉴于南北朝政区划分繁杂随意，地方行政交错混乱，支出庞大，杨坚遂于开皇三年(583年)，尽罢诸郡，实行州县二级制，使国家地方行政渐上轨道。诚如学者钱穆所言：开皇之治的成功，简化地方行政机构是一个基本因素。据统计隋文帝时期朝廷开支减省三分之二，地方官府之开支减省四分之三，全国于行政之经费，大约是南北朝时期开支三分1而已。故隋国库之丰积，不无原因。

经济政策

经济上鉴于南北分裂达二百七十年之久，民生困苦，国库空虚，由以中原地区为盛。故自隋开皇九年(589年)，隋军统一天下后，即以富国为首要目标。故杨坚接纳司马苏威建议，罢盐、酒专卖及入市税，其后多次减税，减轻人民负担，促进国家农业生产，稳定经济发展。隋文帝在位时代之富饶既非重敛于民，究其原因，与全国推行均田制有关。此举既可增加赋税，又可稳定经济发展，且南朝士族亦渐由衰弱至于消逝。均田制能顺利推行，对隋前中期的经济发展收益甚大。轻徭薄赋以解民困。在确保国家赋税收入之同时，稳定民生。由于魏晋南北朝以来，户籍不清，税收不稳。于是于开皇五年(585年)下令实行大索貌阅。并接纳尚书左仆射高熲之建议，推行输籍法，作全国性户口调查，结果查获没有户籍的百姓达165万馀口，其中丁壮44.3万人， 以增加国家税收，改善经济，尽扫魏晋南北朝以来隐瞒户籍之积弊。

废九品中正制

另外，隋文帝废除九品中正制，改为五省六曹制，后改称五省六部制，是为唐代三省六部制之蓝图。中书、门下两省负责诏令的起草和封驳，尚书省负责政务的管理。尚书省又下设吏、户、礼、兵、刑、工六部。吏部，掌管全国官吏的任免、考核、升降和调动；户部，掌管全国的土地、户籍以及赋税、财政收支；礼部，掌管祭祀、礼仪和对外交往；兵部，掌管全国武官的选拔，和兵籍、军械等；刑部，掌管全国的刑律、断狱；工部，掌管各种工程、工匠、水利、交通等。

科举制度

杨坚开了科举制度之先河，他即位后，废除了以前选官用的九品中正制，选官不问门第。规定各州每年向中央选送三人，参加秀才、明经等科的考试，合格者录用为官。

科举制度顺应了历代庶族地主在政治上得到应有的地位的要求，缓和了他们和朝廷的矛盾，使他们忠心拥戴中央，有利于选拔人才，增强政治效率，对封建专制中央集权的巩固起了积极的作用。

人口增长

人口在隋朝中前期大为增长，隋文帝开皇元年（581年）全国户口462万户，到隋炀帝大业五年（609年）达到8,907,536户，46,019,956人。其中在开皇九年（589年）南下平陈增50.0万，此时的全国户口700多万，平均年增长226,708户。

晚年倾轧

隋文帝统治残暴及滥杀大臣、企图独裁天下，他慢慢被大臣疏远。文帝残暴专制，苛刻刑法，百姓惶恐。让「开皇盛世」大为失色。具体来说，功臣虞庆则、史万岁等人先后被杀，刑罚也逐渐变得严苛无情，不复隋朝初建时的依法行事。

他也对几个儿子进行打压，如将三子杨俊软禁，将四子杨秀贬为庶人。文帝未有巩固太子的地位，并废长立幼，立杨广而废杨勇，而之后建立唐朝的唐高祖李渊也同样犯下相同的错误，故之后修隋唐史者认为是隋朝败亡的重大原因。

文帝晚年生活亦变得奢侈，好大喜功，沉迷玩乐，这些坏习惯同样影响了太子杨广，结果文帝在位年间的积蓄，全部为杨广所挥霍。

废立太子

长子杨勇为人忠厚善良，但生活奢华，因而受杨坚厌恶，常告诫太子杨勇说：「自古帝王未有好奢侈而能长久者。汝为储后，当以俭约为先，乃能奉承宗庙。」次子杨广（即隋炀帝）为人文采极高负有抱负，但善于作伪，在杨坚面前装得很朴素，所以受到杨坚喜爱而代其兄为太子。

604年8月13日，杨坚病逝于仁寿宫大宝殿（一说被太子杨广所谋杀），享寿63岁，葬于泰陵（位于今陕西省杨凌示范区五泉镇双庙坡村，为皇帝杨坚与皇后独孤氏的合葬墓）。

历史评价

• 齐王宇文宪曾对周武帝宇文邕评价杨坚：「普六茹坚相貌非常，人颇狡诈，臣每见之不觉自失，请早除之。」

• 隋朝作家李德林在《天命论》中描述隋文帝说：「帝体貌多奇，其面有日月河海，赤龙自通，天角洪大，双上权骨，弯回抱目，口如四字，声若钏鼓，手内有王文，乃受九锡。昊天成命，于是乎在。顾盼闲雅，望之如神，气调精灵，括囊宇宙，威范也可敬，慈爱也可亲。」

• 《隋书·帝纪二》评：「虽未能臻于至治，亦足称近代之良主。然天性沉猜，素无学术，好为小数，不达大体，故忠臣义士莫得尽心竭辞。其草创元勋及有功诸将，诛夷罪退，罕有存者。」又说他「唯妇言是用」、「喜怒不常，过于杀戮」。

• 初唐李延寿《北史》中赞美隋文帝外相：「皇考美须髯，身长七尺八寸，状貌瑰伟，武艺绝伦，识量深重，有将率之略。」

• 《北史》评隋文帝君臣失和、晚年听信谗言与废嫡长子，种下隋朝祸根：「而素无术业，不能尽下，无宽仁之度，有刻薄之资，暨乎暮年，此风愈扇。又雅好瑞符，暗于大道。建彼维城，权侔京室，皆同帝制，靡所适从。听妒妇之言，惑邪臣之说，溺宠废嫡，托付失所。灭父子之道，开昆弟之隙，纵其寻斧，翦伐本根。坟土未乾，子孙继踵为戮，松檟才列，天下已非隋有。惜哉！迹其衰怠之源，稽其乱亡之兆，起自文皇，成于炀帝，所由来远矣，非一朝一夕，其不祀忽诸，未为不幸也。」

• 北宋司马光《资治通鉴》评隋文帝一生的功与过：「高祖性严重，令行禁止，勤于政事。每旦听朝，日昃忘倦。虽啬于财，至于赏赐有功，即无所爱；将士战没，必加优赏，仍遣使者劳问其家。爱养百姓，劝课农桑，轻徭薄赋。其自奉养，务为俭素，乘舆御物，故弊者随令补用；自非享宴，所食不过一肉；后宫皆服浣濯之衣。天下化之，开皇、仁寿之间，丈夫率衣绢布，不服绫绮，装带不过铜铁骨角，无金玉之饰。故衣食滋殖，仓库盈溢。受禅之初，民户不满四百万，末年，逾八百九十万，独冀州已一百万户。然猜忌苛察，信受谗言，功臣故旧，无始终保全者；乃至子弟，皆如仇敌，此其所短也。」

• 明朝官修皇帝实录《明太祖实录》记载，明太祖朱元璋在洪武七年八月初一日（1374年9月7日），亲自前往南京历代帝王庙祭祀三皇、五帝、夏禹王、商汤王、周武王、汉高祖、汉光武帝、隋文帝、唐太宗、宋太祖、元世祖一共十七位帝王，其中对隋文帝杨坚的祝文是：「惟隋高祖皇帝勤政不怠，赏功弗吝，节用安民，时称平治。有君天下之德而安万世之功者也。元璋以菲德荷天佑人助，君临天下，继承中国帝王正统，伏念列圣去世已远，神灵在天，万古长存，崇报之礼，多未举行，故于祭祀有阙。是用肇新庙宇于京师，列序圣像及历代开基帝王，每岁祀以春、秋仲月，永为常典。今礼奠之初，谨奉牲醴、庶品致祭，伏惟神鉴。尚享！」

家庭

父母

• 杨忠，追尊隋武元帝

• 吕苦桃，追尊元明皇后

兄弟姐妹

• 蔡景王杨整

• 滕穆王杨瓒

• 道宣王杨嵩

• 卫昭王杨爽

• 安成公主

• 昌乐公主

• 杨氏，嫁李礼成

后妃

• 文献皇后独孤伽罗

• 宣华夫人陈氏，陈宣帝第十四女宁远公主

• 容华夫人蔡氏

• 弘政夫人陈氏，陈宣帝第二十四女临川公主

• 宫人尉迟氏，尉迟迥孙女，被独孤皇后所杀

子女

• 长子房陵王杨勇，废太子

• 次子炀皇帝杨广

• 三子秦孝王杨俊

• 四子蜀王杨秀

• 五子汉王杨谅

• 长女乐平公主杨丽华（561年－609年），北周宣帝天元大皇后

• 五女兰陵公主杨阿五

• 某女襄国公主，下嫁李长雅

• 某女广平公主，下嫁宇文静礼

学术考证

根据《周书》《隋书》记载，杨坚家族出身于弘农杨氏。《隋书》与《北史》记载杨坚家族先祖杨铉为杨震八世孙，但《新唐书》〈宰相世系表〉中记载杨震至杨铉为19代，清朝沈炳震于〈唐书宰相世系表订伪〉曾对杨坚家族系谱提出质疑。

中华民国学者陈寅恪不认同杨坚家族出身于武川，根据杨坚之母吕苦桃出身山东寒族，以当时世族通婚惯例来看，其父杨忠家族可能出身于寒门山东杨氏。据中华人民共和国学者唐长孺考证，家谱可考的弘农杨氏后代，如杨骏、杨珧，其家族在晋朝时已消散。北魏时宣称出身弘农杨氏的，如杨播等人，家族传承皆可疑，但也可能是远支，难以确认。

王桐龄认为杨坚家族出身华夷杂处的武川镇，又与独孤氏、宇文氏等有联姻关系，且多有违背儒家伦理的行为，似与胡风暗合。推论杨坚家族可能有鲜卑血统，或是纯粹的鲜卑人，伪托为弘农杨氏出身。

多位学者，如竹田龙儿、布目潮渢，认为杨坚家族并非出身汉族，台湾学者吕春盛认为杨坚家族的籍贯与族属虽难以考究，但出身弘农杨氏的说法应不足采信，其家族也可能出身山东汉人寒门，但史籍记载自杨元寿以来五代居于武川，其家族具有相当胡族文化色彩则无有疑虑。森安孝夫引用学者推论，以杨坚之父杨忠身高达2米，外貌轮廓分明，推论他可能有高加索人种血统。

认为杨坚家族确为弘农杨氏且为汉族的学者，包括中华人民共和国学者陶新华、樊广平、蒙曼等。学者高明士与杨志玖认为杨坚能迅速夺权建立隋朝，与其家族背景和汉人出身有很大关系。

影视作品

• 1987年香港无线电视剧《大运河》由鲍方饰演。

• 1996年电视剧《隋唐演义》由张运济饰演。

• 2010年电视剧《泪痕剑》由张晋饰演。

• 2013年电视剧《兰陵王》由韩栋饰演。

• 2018年电视剧《独孤天下》由张丹峰饰演

• 2019年电视剧《独孤皇后》由陈晓饰演

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