History

Early Joseon period

Founding

By the late 14th century, the nearly 500-year-old Goryeo established in 918 was tottering, its foundations collapsing from years of war and de facto occupation from the disintegrating Mongol Empire. Following the emergence of the Ming dynasty, the royal court in Goryeo split into two conflicting factions: the group led by General Yi (supporting the Ming) and the camp led by General Choe (standing by the Yuan).

Goryeo claimed to be the successor of the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo (which was later renamed Goryeo); as such, restoring Manchuria as part of Korean territory was part of its foreign policy throughout its history. When a Ming messenger came to Goryeo in 1388, the 14th year of U of Goryeo, to demand that Goguryeo's former northern territory be handed over to Ming China, General Choe seized the chance to argue for an attack on the Liaodong Peninsula.

Yi was chosen to lead the attack; however, he revolted and swept back to Gaegyeong and initiated a coup d'état, overthrowing King U in favor of his son, Chang of Goryeo (1388). He later killed King U and his son after a failed restoration and forcibly placed a royal named Yi on the throne (he became Gongyang of Goryeo). In 1392, Yi eliminated Jeong Mong-ju, highly respected leader of a group loyal to Goryeo dynasty, and dethroned King Gongyang, exiling him to Wonju, and before he ascended the throne. The Goryeo kingdom had come to an end after almost 500 years of rule.

In the beginning of his reign, Yi Seonggye, now ruler of Korea, intended to continue use of the name Goryeo for the country he ruled and simply change the royal line of descent to his own, thus maintaining the façade of continuing the 500-year-old Goryeo tradition. However, after numerous threats of mutiny from the drastically weakened but still influential Gwonmun nobles, who continued to swear allegiance to the remnants of the Goryeo and now the demoted Wang clan, the consensus in the reformed court was that a new dynastic title was needed to signify the change. In naming the new kingdom, Taejo contemplated two possibilities - "Hwaryeong" and "Joseon". After much internal deliberation, as well as endorsement by the neighboring Ming dynasty's emperor, Taejo declared the name of the kingdom to be Joseon, a tribute to the ancient Korean state of Gojoseon. He also moved the capital to Hanyang from Kaesong.

Strife of princes

When the new dynasty was brought into existence, Taejo brought up the issue of which son would be his successor. Although Yi Bangwon, Taejo's fifth son by Queen Sineui, had contributed most to assisting his father's rise to power, the prime minister Jeong Dojeon and Nam Eun used their influence on King Taejo to name his eighth son (second son of Queen Sindeok) Grand Prince Uian (Yi Bangseok) as crown prince in 1392. This conflict arose largely because Jeong Dojeon, who shaped and laid down ideological, institutional, and legal foundations of the new kingdom more than anyone else, saw Joseon as a kingdom led by ministers appointed by the king while Yi Bangwon wanted to establish the absolute monarchy ruled directly by the king. With Taejo's support, Jeong Dojeon kept limiting the royal family's power by prohibiting political involvement of princes and attempting to abolish their private armies. Both sides were well aware of each other's great animosity and were getting ready to strike first.

After the sudden death of Queen Sindeok, while King Taejo was still in mourning for his second wife, Yi Bangwon struck first by raiding the palace and killed Jeong Dojeon and his supporters as well as Queen Sindeok's two sons (his half-brothers) including the crown prince in 1398. This incident became known as the First Strife of Princes.

Aghast at the fact that his sons were willing to kill each other for the crown, and psychologically exhausted from the death of his second wife, King Taejo abdicated and immediately crowned his second son Yi Banggwa as King Jeongjong. One of King Jeongjong's first acts as monarch was to revert the capital to Kaesong, where he is believed to have been considerably more comfortable, away from the toxic power strife. Yet Yi Bangwon retained real power and was soon in conflict with his disgruntled older brother, Yi Banggan, who also yearned for power. In 1400, the tensions between Yi Bangwon's faction and Yi Banggan's camp escalated into an all-out conflict that came to be known as the Second Strife of Princes. In the aftermath of the struggle, the defeated Yi Banggan was exiled to Dosan while his supporters were executed. Thoroughly intimidated, King Jeongjong immediately invested Yi Bangwon as heir presumptive and voluntarily abdicated. That same year, Yi Bangwon assumed the throne of Joseon at long last as King Taejong, third king of Joseon.

Consolidation of royal power

In the beginning of Taejong's reign, the Grand King Former, Taejo, refused to relinquish the royal seal that signified the legitimacy of any king's rule. Taejong began to initiate policies he believed would prove his qualification to rule. One of his first acts as king was to abolish the privilege enjoyed by the upper echelons of government and the aristocracy to maintain private armies. His revoking of such rights to field independent forces effectively severed their ability to muster large-scale revolts, and drastically increased the number of men employed in the national military. Taejong's next act as king was to revise the existing legislation concerning the taxation of land ownership and the recording of state of subjects. With the discovery of previously hidden land, national income increased twofold.

In 1399, Taejong had played an influential role in scrapping the Dopyeong Assembly, a council of the old government administration that held a monopoly in court power during the waning years of the Goryeo kingdom, in favor of the State Council of Joseon ( ), a new branch of central administration that revolved around the king and his edicts. After passing the subject documentation and taxation legislation, King Taejong issued a new decree in which all decisions passed by the State Council could only come into effect with the approval of the king. This ended the custom of court ministers and advisors making decisions through debate and negotiations amongst themselves, and thus brought the royal power to new heights.

Shortly thereafter, Taejong installed an office, known as the Sinmun Office, to hear cases in which aggrieved subjects felt that they had been exploited or treated unjustly by government officials or aristocrats. However, Taejong kept Jeong Dojeon's reforms intact for most part. In addition, Taejong executed or exiled many of his supporters who helped him ascend on the throne in order to strengthen the royal authority. To limit influence of in-laws, he also killed all four of his Queen's brothers and his son Sejong's father-in-law. Taejong remains a controversial figure who killed many of his rivals and relatives to gain power and yet ruled effectively to improve the populace's lives, strengthen national defense, and lay down a solid foundation for his successor Sejong's rule.

Sejong the Great

In August 1418, following Taejong's abdication two months earlier, Sejong the Great ascended the throne. In May 1419, King Sejong, under the advice and guidance of his father Taejong, embarked upon the Gihae Eastern Expedition to remove the nuisance of waegu (coastal pirates) who had been operating out of Tsushima Island.

In September 1419, the daimyō of Tsushima, Sadamori, capitulated to the Joseon court. In 1443, The Treaty of Gyehae was signed in which the daimyō of Tsushima was granted rights to conduct trade with Korea in fifty ships per year in exchange for sending tribute to Korea and aiding to stop any Waegu coastal pirate raids on Korean ports.

On the northern border, Sejong established four forts and six posts (; ) to safeguard his people from the Jurchens, who later became the Manchus, living in Manchuria. In 1433, Sejong sent Kim Jong-seo, a government official, north to fend off the Jurchens. Kim's military campaign captured several castles, pushed north, and restored Korean territory, roughly the present-day border between North Korea and China.

During the rule of Sejong, Korea saw advances in natural science, agriculture, literature, traditional Chinese medicine, and engineering. Because of such success, Sejong was given the title "Sejong the Great". The most remembered contribution of King Sejong is the creation of Hangul, the Korean alphabet, in 1443; everyday use of Hanja in writing eventually was surpassed by Hangul in the later half of the 20th century.

Six martyred ministers

After King Sejong's death, his son Munjong continued his father's legacy but soon died of illness in 1452, just two years after coronation. He was succeeded by his twelve-year-old son, Danjong. In addition to two regents, Princess Gyeonghye also served as Danjong's guardian and, along with the general Kim Jongso, attempted to strengthen royal authority. However, Danjong's uncle, Sejo, gained control of the government and eventually deposed his nephew to become the seventh king of Joseon himself in 1455. After six ministers loyal to Danjong attempted to assassinate Sejo to return Danjong to the throne, Sejo executed the six ministers and also killed Danjong in his place of exile.

King Sejo enabled the government to determine exact population numbers and to mobilize troops effectively. He also revised the land ordinance to improve the national economy and encouraged the publication of books. Most importantly, he compiled the Grand Code for State Administration, which became the cornerstone of dynastic administration and provided the first form of constitutional law in a written form in Korea.

However, he undermined much of the foundation of many existing systems, including the Jiphyeonjeon which his predecessors King Sejong and Munjong had carefully laid down. He cut down on everything he deemed unworthy and caused countless complications in the long run. Many of these adjustments were done for his own power, not regarding the consequences and problems that would occur. The favoritism he showed towards the ministers who aided him in taking the throne led to increased corruption in the higher echelon of the political field.

Institutional arrangements and Prosper culture

Sejo's weak son Yejong succeeded him as the eighth king, but died two years later in 1469. Yejong's nephew Seongjong ascended the throne. His reign was marked by the prosperity and growth of the national economy and the rise of neo-Confucian scholars called sarim who were encouraged by Seongjong to enter court politics. He established Hongmungwan, the royal library and advisory council composed of Confucian scholars, with whom he discussed philosophy and government policies. He ushered in a cultural golden age that rivaled Sejong's reign by publishing numerous books on geography, ethics, and various other fields.

He also sent several military campaigns against the Jurchens on the northern border in 1491, like many of his predecessors. The campaign, led by General Heo Jong, was successful, and the defeated Jurchens, led by the Udige clan, retreated to the north of the Yalu River. King Seongjong was succeeded by his son, Yeonsangun, in 1494.

Literati purges

Yeonsangun is often considered the worst tyrant of the Joseon, whose reign was marked by Korean literati purges between 1498 and 1506. His behavior became erratic after he learned that his biological mother was not Queen Junghyeon but the deposed Queen Lady Yun, who was forced to drink poison after poisoning one of Seongjong's concubines out of jealousy and leaving a scratch mark on Seongjong's face. When he was shown a piece of clothing that was allegedly stained with his mother's blood vomited after drinking poison, he beat to death two of Seongjong's concubines who had accused Consort Yun and he pushed Grand Queen Insu, who died afterward. He executed government officials who supported Consort Yun's death along with their families. He also executed sarim scholars for writing phrases critical of Sejo's usurpation of the throne.

Yeonsangun also seized a thousand women from the provinces to serve as palace entertainers and appropriated the Sungkyunkwan as a personal pleasure ground. He abolished the Office of Censors, whose function was to criticize inappropriate actions and policies of the king, and Hongmungwan. He banned the use of hangul when the common people wrote with it on posters criticizing the king. After twelve years of misrule, he was finally deposed in a coup that placed his half-brother Jungjong on the throne in 1506.

Jungjong was a fundamentally weak king because of the circumstances that placed him on the throne, but his reign also saw a period of significant reforms led by his minister Jo Gwang-jo, the charismatic leader of sarim. He established a local self-government system called hyangyak to strengthen local autonomy and communal spirit among the people, sought to reduce the gap between the rich and poor with a land reform that would distribute land to farmers more equally and limit the amount of land and number of slaves that one could own, promulgated widely among the populace Confucian writings with vernacular translations, and sought to trim the size of government by reducing the number of bureaucrats. According to the Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, it was said that no official dared to receive a bribe or exploit the populace during this time because as Inspector General, he applied law strictly.

These radical reforms were very popular with the populace but were fiercely opposed by the conservative officials who helped to put Jungjong on the throne. They plotted to cause Jungjong to doubt Jo's loyalty. Jo Gwangjo was executed, and most of his reform measures died with him in the resulting Third Literati Purge of 1519. For nearly 50 years afterward, the court politics was marred by bloody and chaotic struggles between factions backing rival consorts and princes. In-laws of the royal family wielded great power and contributed to much corruption in that era.

Middle Joseon period

The middle Joseon period was marked by a series of intense and bloody power struggles between political factions that weakened the country and large-scale invasions by Japan and Manchu that nearly toppled the kingdom.

Factional struggle

The Sarim faction had suffered a series of political defeats during the reigns of Yeonsangun, Jungjong, and Myeongjong, but it gained control of the government during the reign of King Seonjo. It soon split into opposing factions known as the Easterners and the Westerners. Within decades the Easterners themselves divided into the Southerners and the Northerners; in the seventeenth century the Westerners as well permanently split into the Noron and the Soron. The alternations in power among these factions were often accompanied by charges of treason and bloody purges, initiating a cycle of revenge with each change of regime.

One example is the 1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, one of the bloodiest political purges of Joseon. Jeong Yeo-rip, an Easterner, had formed a society with group of supporters that also received military training to fight against Waegu. There is still a dispute about the nature and purpose of his group, which reflected desire for classless society and spread throughout Honam. He was subsequently accused of conspiracy to start a rebellion. Jeong Cheol, head of the Western faction, was in charge of investigating the case and used this event to effect widespread purge of Easterners who had slightest connection with Jeong Yeo-rip. Eventually 1000 Easterners were killed or exiled in the aftermath.

Early Japanese invasions

Throughout Korean history, there was frequent piracy on sea and brigandage on land. The only purpose for the Joseon navy was to secure the maritime trade against the wokou. The navy repelled pirates using an advanced form of gunpowder technologies including cannons and fire arrows in form of singijeon deployed by hwacha.

During the Japanese invasions in the 1590s, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, plotting the conquest of Ming China with Portuguese guns, invaded Korea with his daimyōs and their troops, intending to use Korea as a stepping stone. Factional division in the Joseon court, inability to assess Japanese military capability, and failed attempts at diplomacy led to poor preparation on Joseon's part. The use of European firearms by the Japanese left most of the southern part of the Korean Peninsula occupied within months, with both Hanseong (present-day Seoul) and Pyongyang captured.

However, the invasion was slowed when Admiral Yi Sun-sin destroyed the Japanese invasion fleet. The guerrilla resistance that eventually formed also helped. Local resistance slowed down the Japanese advance and decisive naval victories by Admiral Yi left control over sea routes in Korean hands, severely hampering Japanese supply lines. Furthermore, Ming China intervened on the side of the Koreans, sending a large force in 1593 which pushed back the Japanese together with the Koreans.

During the war, Koreans developed powerful firearms and the turtle ships. The Joseon and Ming forces defeated the Japanese at a deep price. Following the war, relations between Korea and Japan were completely suspended until 1609.

Manchu invasions

After the Japanese invasions, the Korean Peninsula was devastated. Meanwhile, Nurhaci (r. 1583–1626), the chieftain of the Jianzhou Jurchens, was unifying the Jurchen tribes of Manchuria into a strong coalition that his son Hong Taiji (r. 1626-–1643) would eventually rename the "Manchus." After he declared Seven Grievances against Ming China in 1618, Nurhaci and the Ming engaged in several military conflicts. On such occasions, Nurhaci required help from Gwanghaegun of Joseon (r.1608–1623), putting the Korean state in a difficult position because the Ming court was also requesting assistance. Gwanghaegun tried to maintain neutrality, but most of his officials opposed him for not supporting Ming China, which had saved Joseon during Hideyoshi's invasions.

In 1623, Gwanghaegun was deposed and replaced by Injo of Joseon (r. 1623–1649), who banished Gwanghaejun's supporters. Reverting his predecessor's foreign policy, the new king decided to openly support the Ming, but a rebellion led by military commander Yi Gwal erupted in 1624 and wrecked Joseon's military defenses in the north. Even after the rebellion had been suppressed, King Injo had to devote military forces to ensure the stability of the capital, leaving fewer soldiers to defend the northern borders.

In 1627, a Jurchen army of 30,000 led by Nurhaci's nephew Amin overran Joseon's defenses. After a quick campaign that was assisted by northern yangban who had supported Gwanghaegun, the Jurchens imposed a treaty that forced Joseon to accept "brotherly relations" with the Jurchen kingdom. Because Injo persisted in his anti-Manchu policies, Qing emperor Hong Taiji sent a punitive expedition of 120,000 men to Joseon in 1636. Defeated, King Injo was forced to end his relations with the Ming and recognize the Qing as suzerain instead. Injo's successor Hyojong of Joseon (r. 1649–1659) tried to form an army to keep his enemies away and conquer the Qing for revenge, but could never act on his designs.

Despite reestablishing economic relations by officially entering the imperial Chinese tributary system, Joseon leaders and intellectuals remained resentful of the Manchus, whom they regarded as barbarians. Long after submitting to the Qing, the Joseon court and many Korean intellectuals kept using Ming reign periods, as when a scholar marked 1861 as "the 234th year of Chongzhen."

Late Joseon period

Emergence of Silhak and renaissance of the Joseon

After invasions from Japan and Manchuria, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. Joseon witnessed the emergence of Silhak (Practical Learning). The early group of Silhak scholars advocated comprehensive reform of civil service examination, taxation, natural sciences and the improvement in agromanagerial and agricultural techniques. It aimed to rebuild Joseon society after it had been devastated by the two invasions. Under the leadership of Kim Yuk, the chief minister of King Hyeonjong, the implementation of reforms proved highly advantageous both to state revenues and to the lot of the peasants.

Factional conflict grew particularly intense under the reigns of the kings Sukjong and Gyeongjong, with major rapid reversals of the ruling faction, known as *hwanguk* (换局; literally change in the state of affairs), being commonplace. As a response, the next kings, Yeongjo and Jeongjo, generally pursued the Tangpyeongchaek - a policy of maintaining balance and equality between the factions.

The two kings led a second renaissance of the Joseon kingdom. Yeongjo's grandson, the enlightened King Jeongjo enacted various reforms throughout his reign, notably establishing Gyujanggak, a royal library in order to improve the cultural and political position of Joseon and to recruit gifted officers to run the nation. King Jeongjo also spearheaded bold social initiatives, opening government positions to those who would previously have been barred because of their social status. King Jeongjo had the support of the many Silhak scholars, who supported his regal power. King Jeongjo's reign also saw the further growth and development of Joseon's popular culture. At that time, the group of Silhak scholars encouraged the individual to reflect on state traditions and lifestyle, initiating the studies of Korea that addressed its history, geography, epigraphy and language.

Government by in-law families

After the death of King Jeongjo, the Joseon faced difficult external and internal problems. Internally, the foundation of national law and order weakened as a result of "Sedo" politics (in-law government) by royal in-law family.

Young King Sunjo succeeded King Jeongjo in 1800. With Jeongjo's death the Intransigent Patriarch faction seized power with the regency of Queen Dowager Jeongsun, whose family had strong ties to the Intransigents, and initiated a persecution of Catholics. But after the retirement and death of the Queen Dowager, the Intransigents were gradually ousted and the Expedient faction, including the Andong Kim family of Kim Jo-sun, the father of the queen, gained power. Gradually the Andong Kims came to dominate the court.

With the domination of the Andong Kims, the era of *sedo politics* or in-law rule began. The formidable in-law lineage monopolized the vital positions in government, holding sway over the political scene, and intervening in the succession of the throne. These kings had no monarchic authority and could not rule over the government. The yangban of other families, overwhelmed by the power exercised by the royal in-laws, could not speak out. As the power was concentrated in the hands of the royal in-law lineage, there was disorder in the governing process and corruption became rampant. Large sums were offered in bribes to the powerful lineages to obtain positions with nominally high rank. Even the low-ranking posts were bought and sold. This period, which spanned 60 years, saw the manifestation of both severe poverty among the Korean population and ceaseless rebellions in various parts of the country.

Externally, Joseon became increasingly isolationist. Its rulers sought to limit contact with foreign countries.

End of the dynasty

In 1863 King Gojong took the throne. His father, Regent Heungseon Daewongun, ruled for him until Gojong reached adulthood. During the mid-1860s the Regent was the main proponent of isolationism and the instrument of the persecution of native and foreign Catholics, a policy that led directly to the French Campaign against Korea in 1866. The early years of his rule also witnessed a large effort to restore the dilapidated Gyeongbok Palace, the seat of royal authority. During his reign, the power and authority of the in-law families such as the Andong Kims sharply declined. In order to get rid of the Andong Kim and Pungyang Cho families, he promoted persons without making references to political party or family affiliations, and in order to reduce the burdens of the people and solidify the basis of the nation's economy, he reformed the tax system. In 1871, U.S. and Korean forces clashed in a U.S. attempt at "gunboat diplomacy" following on the General Sherman incident of 1866.

In 1873, King Gojong announced his assumption of royal rule. With the subsequent retirement of Heungseon Daewongun, the future Queen Min (later called Empress Myeongseong) became a power in the court, placing her family in high court positions.

Japan, after the Meiji Restoration, acquired Western military technology, and forced Joseon to sign the Treaty of Ganghwa in 1876, opening three ports to trade and granting the Japanese extraterritoriality. Port Hamilton was briefly occupied by the Royal Navy in 1885.

Many Koreans despised Japanese and foreign influences over their land and the corrupt oppressive rule of the Joseon Dynasty. In 1881, the Byeolgigun, a modern elite military unit, was formed with Japanese trainers. The salaries of the other soldiers were held back and in 1882 rioting soldiers attacked the Japanese officers and even forced the queen to take refuge in the countryside. In 1894, the Donghak Peasant Revolution saw farmers rise up in a mass rebellion, with peasant leader Jeon Bong-jun defeating the forces of local ruler Jo Byong-gap at the battle of Go-bu on January 11, 1894; after the battle, Jo's properties were handed out to the peasants. By May, the peasant army had reached Jeonju, and the Joseon government asked the Qing dynasty government for assistance in ending the revolt. The Qing sent 3,000 troops and the rebels negotiated a truce, but the Japanese considered the Qing presence a threat and sent in 8,000 troops of their own, seizing the Royal Palace in Seoul and installing a pro-Japanese government on 8 June 1894. This soon escalated into the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) between Japan and Qing China, fought largely in Korea. king made a deal with Japan partially out of isolationist views and conservative-misogynistic distrust of the queen's support for open trade policies towards the Western civilizations and China. He ended up preempting a specific disadvantageous, exclusive negotiation with Japan previous to the Queen's decision, which was later used as a political premise for Japan to wage military action. Scholars particularly during the Joseon era were touted for expressing allegiance to the king

Empress Myeongseong (referred to as "Queen Min") had attempted to counter Japanese interference in Korea and was considering turning to the Russian Empire and to China for support. In 1895, Empress Myeongseong was assassinated by Japanese agents. The Japanese minister to Korea, Lieutenant-General Viscount Miura, almost certainly orchestrated the plot against her. A group of Japanese agents entered the Gyeongbokgung Royal Palace in Seoul, which was under Japanese control, and Queen Min was killed and her body desecrated in the North wing of the palace.

The Qing acknowledged defeat in the Treaty of Shimonoseki (17 April 1895), which officially guaranteed Korea's independence from China. It was a step toward Japan gaining regional hegemony in Korea. The Joseon court, pressured by encroachment from larger powers, felt the need to reinforce national integrity and declared the Korean Empire, along with the Gwangmu Reform in 1897. King Gojong assumed the title of Emperor in order to assert Korea's independence. In addition, other foreign powers were sought for military technology, especially Russia, to fend off the Japanese. Technically, 1897 marks the end of the Joseon period, as the official name of the empire was changed; however the Joseon Dynasty would still reign, albeit perturbed by Japan and Russia.

In a complicated series of maneuvers and counter-maneuvers, Japan pushed back the Russian fleet at the Battle of Port Arthur in 1905. With the conclusion of the 1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War with the Treaty of Portsmouth, the way was open for Japan to take control of Korea. After the signing of the Protectorate Treaty in 1905, Korea became a protectorate of Japan. Prince Itō was the first Resident-General of Korea, although he was assassinated by Korean independence activist An Jung-geun in 1909 at the train station at Harbin. In 1910 the Japanese Empire finally annexed Korea.

Government

Joseon kingdom was a highly centralized monarchy and neo-Confucian bureaucracy as codified by Gyeongguk daejeon, a sort of Joseon constitution.

King

The king had absolute authority, but his actual power varied with political circumstances. He was bound by tradition, precedents set by earlier kings, Gyeongguk daejeon, and Confucian teachings. The king commanded absolute loyalty from his officials and subjects, but the officials were also expected to persuade the king to the right path if the latter was thought to be mistaken. Natural disasters were thought to be due to the king's failings, and therefore, Joseon kings were very sensitive to their occurrences. When there was severe drought or a series of disasters, the king often formally sought criticism from officials and citizenry. On those occasions,

critics were immune from prosecution, regardless of what they said or wrote (although there were a few exceptions).

Direct communication between the king and the common people was possible through the sangeon written petition system and the gyeokjaeng oral petition system. Through the gyeokjaeng oral petition system, commoners could strike a gong or drum in front of the palace or during the king's public processions in order to appeal their grievances or petition to the king directly. This allowed even the illiterate members of Joseon society to make a petition to the king. More than 1,300 gyeokjaeng-related accounts are recorded in the Ilseongnok.

Royal seals

Image:Joseon wang bo (Royal Seal Treasure of the Joseon King).svg|before joining the Chinese tributary system period seal used about 10 years.

Image:Joseongukwangjiin (The Seal of the King of Joseon).svg|Ming dynasty tributary period seal.

Image:Joseongukwangjiin (The Seal of the King of Joseon, 1637-1653).svg|Qing dynasty tributary period seal used between 1637 and 1653.

Image:Joseongukwangjiin (The Seal of the King of Joseon, 1653-1776).svg|Qing dynasty tributary period seal used between 1653 and 1776.

Image:Joseongukwangjiin (The Seal of the King of Joseon, 1776-1876).svg|Qing dynasty tributary period seal used between 1776 and 1876.

Image:Daejoseongukjusangjibo.svg|The seal was produced on December 15, 1876, for use in Japanese-related state documents.

Image:Daegunjubo.svg|"Daegunjubo" designed to replace the former sergeant "Joseongukwangjiin". used as the seal of the king for documents such as appointment documents for high-ranking government officials and ordinances proclaimed in Korea.- between 1882 and 1897

Image:DaejoseonDaegunjubo.svg|"DaejoseonDaegunjubo" were used as 『the seal of state』 for credentials in diplomatic relations with other countries. : between 1882 ~

Officials

Government officials were ranked in 18 levels, ranging from first senior rank (정1품, 正一品) down to ninth junior rank (종9품, 从九品). Seniority and promotion was achieved through royal decree, based on examination or recommendation. The officials from 1st senior rank to 3rd senior rank wore red robes. Those from 3rd junior rank to 6th junior rank wore blue. Those below wore green robes.

Here, "government official" means one who occupied an office which gave its holder yangban status - hereditary nobility for three generations. In order to become such an official, one had to pass a series of gwageo examinations. There were three kinds of gwageo exams - literary, military, and miscellaneous. The literary route was the most prestigious. Many key posts, including all Censorate posts, were open only to officials who advanced through literary exam. The literary route involved a series of four tests. To qualify, one had to pass them all. 33 candidates who were chosen in this manner would take the final exam, before the king. The candidate with the highest score was appointed to a position of 6th junior rank (a jump of six ranks). The two candidates with the next highest scores were appointed to a position of 7th junior rank. The seven candidates with next highest scores were assigned to 8th junior rank. The remaining 23 candidates were given 9th junior rank, the lowest of 18 ranks.

The officials of 1st senior rank, 1st junior rank, and 2nd senior rank were addressed with honorific "dae-gam" (대감, 大监) while those of 2nd junior rank and 3rd senior rank were addressed with honorific "yeong-gam" (영감, 令监). These red-robed officials, collectively called "dangsanggwan" (당상관, 堂上官), took part in deciding government policies by attending cabinet meetings. The rest of the ranked officials were called "danghagwan" (당하관, 堂下官).

Central government

State Council

State Council (Uijeongbu, 의정부, 议政府) was the highest deliberative body, whose power however declined over the course of the period. The Chief State Councillor (Yeonguijeong, 영의정, 领议政), Left State Councillor (Jwauijeong, 좌의정, 左议政), and Right State Councillor (Uuijeong, 우의정, 右议政) were the highest-ranking officials in the government (All three were of 1st senior rank). They were assisted by Left Minister (Jwachanseong, 좌찬성, 左赞成) and Right Minister (Uichangseong, 우찬성, 右赞成), both of 1st junior rank, and seven lower ranking officials. The power of State Council was inversely proportional to the king's power. There were periods when it directly controlled Six Ministries, the chief executive body of Joseon government, but it primarily served in advisory role under stronger kings. State councillors served in several other positions concurrently.

Six Ministries

Six Ministries (Yukjo, 육조, 六曹) make up the chief executive body. Each minister (Panseo, 판서, 判书) was of 2nd senior rank and was assisted by deputy minister (Champan, 참판, 参判), who was of 2nd junior rank. Ministry of Personnel was the most senior office of six ministries. As the influence of State Council waned over time, Minister of Personnel was often de facto head of ministers. Six ministries include in the order of seniority.

:*Ministry of Personnel (Ijo, 이조, 吏曹) - was primarily concerned with appointment of officials

:*Ministry of Taxation (Hojo, 호조, 户曹) - taxation, finances, census, agriculture, and land policies

:*Ministry of Rites (Yejo, 예조, 礼曺) - rituals, culture, diplomacy, gwageo exam

:*Ministry of Defence (Byeongjo, 병조, 兵曺) - military affairs

:**Office of Police Bureau (Podocheong, 포도청, 捕盗厅) - office for public order

:*Ministry of Justice (Hyeongjo, 형조, 刑曺) - administration of law, slavery, punishments

:*Ministry of Commerce (Gongjo, 공조, 工曹) - industry, public works, manufacturing, mining

Three Offices

Three Offices, or Samsa (삼사), is a collective name for three offices that functioned as major organ of press and provided checks and balance on the king and the officials. While modeled after the Chinese system, they played much more prominent roles in Joseon government than their Chinese counterparts. In their role as organ of press, they did not have actual authority to decide or implement policies, but had influential voice in the ensuing debate.

The officials who served in these offices tended to be younger and of lower rank compared to other offices but had strong academic reputation and enjoyed special privileges and great prestige (For instance, censors were permitted to drink during working hours because of their function of criticizing the king). To be appointed, they went through more thorough review of character and family background. Three Offices provided the fastest route of promotion to high posts and was almost a requirement to becoming a State Councillor.

:*Office of Inspector General (Saheonbu·사헌부) - It monitored government administration and officials at each level in both central and local governments for corruption, malfeasance, or inefficiency. It was also in charge of advancing public morals and Confucian customs and redressing grievances of the populace. It was headed by Inspector General (Daesaheon·대사헌), a position of 2nd junior rank, who oversaw 30 largely independent officials.

:*Office of Censors (Saganwon·사간원) - Its chief function was to remonstrate with the king if there was wrong or improper action or policy. Important decrees of the king were first reviewed by censors, who could ask to withdraw them if judged improper. It also issued opinions about the general state of affairs. It was composed of five officials, led by Chief Censor (Daesagan·대사간), of 3rd senior rank.

While the primary focus for Office of Inspector General is the government officials and Office of Censors is focused on the king, two offices often performed each other's functions, and there was much overlap. Together they were called "Yangsa," (양사) which literally means "Both Offices," and often worked jointly especially when they sought to reverse the king's decision.

:*Office of Special Advisors (Hongmungwan·홍문관 弘文馆) - It oversaw the royal library and served as research institute to study Confucian philosophy and answer the king's questions. Its officials took part in the daily lessons called gyeongyeon (경연), in which they discussed history and Confucian philosophy with the king. Since these discussions often led to commentary on current political issues, its officials had significant influence as advisors. It was headed by Chief Scholar (Daejehak·대제학), a part-time post of 2nd senior rank that served concurrently in another high post (such as in State Council), and Deputy Chief Scholar (Bujehak·부제학), a full-time post of 3rd senior rank that actually ran the office. There was great prestige attached to being Chief Scholar in this deeply Confucian society. (The office was established to replace Hall of Worthies (Jiphyeonjeon·집현전) after the latter was abolished by King Sejo in the aftermath of Six martyred ministers.)

Other offices

The major offices include the following:

• Royal Secretariat (Seungjeongwon, 승정원) served as a liaison between the king and Six Ministries. There were six royal secretaries (승지), one for each ministry, and all were of 3rd senior rank. Their primary role was to pass down royal decree to the ministries and submit petitions from the officials and the populace to the king, but they also advised the king and served in other key positions close to the king. In particular Chief Royal Secretary (도승지), a liaison to Ministry of Personnel, served the king in the closest proximity of all government official and often enjoyed great power that was derived from the king's favor. Hong Guk-yeong (during Jeongjo's reign) and Han Myeong-hwe (during Sejo) are some examples of chief royal secretaries who were the most powerful official of their time.

• Capital Bureau (Hanseongbu, 한성부) was in charge of running the capital, Hanyang or present-day Seoul. It was led by Panyoon (판윤), of 2nd senior second rank equivalent to today's mayor of Seoul.

• Royal Investigation Bureau (Uigeumbu, 의금부) was an investigative and enforcement organ under direct control of the king. It chiefly dealt with treason and other serious cases that concerned the king and royal family and served to arrest, investigate, imprison, and carry out sentences against the suspected offenders, who were often government officials.

• Office of Records (Chunchugwan, 춘추관) officials wrote, compiled, and maintained the government and historical records. It was headed by State Councillors, and many posts were held by officials serving in other offices concurrently. There were eight historiographers whose sole function was to record the meetings for history.

• Seonggyungwan or Royal Academy (성균관) prepared future government officials. Those who passed first two stages of gwageo examinations (literary exam) were admitted to Seonggyungwan. The class size was usually 200 students, who lived in the residential hall and followed strict routine and school rules. (Tuition, room and board were provided by the government.) It also served as the state shrine for Confucian and Korean Confucian sages. The students' opinions on government policies, especially collective statements and demonstrations, could be influential as they represented fresh and uncorrupted consensus of young scholars. The official in charge was Daesaseong (대사성), of 3rd senior rank, and 36 other officials including those from other offices were involved in running the academy.

Local government

The officials of high rank were sent from the central government. Sometimes a secret royal inspector (Amhaeng-eosa·암행어사) was appointed by the king to travel incognito and monitor the provincial officials. These undercover inspectors were generally young officials of lower rank but were invested with the royal authority to dismiss corrupt officials.

• Provinces (Do·도 道) - There were eight provinces, each of which was governed by Governor (Gwanchalsa·관찰사 观察使), a position of 2nd junior rank.

• Bu(부) - administrative offices in charge of major cities in provinces. Each bu was led by Buyoon (부윤), which was equivalent to Governor in rank.

• Mok (목 牧) - There were twenty moks, which governed large counties named 'ju'(주 州). They were run by Moksa (목사 牧使), of 3rd senior rank.

• County (Gun·군 郡) - There were eighty counties in Joseon, each governed by Gunsu (군수 郡守), a 4th junior rank.

• Hyeon (현 县) - Large hyeons were governed by Hyeongryeong (현령 县令) of 5th junior rank while smaller hyeons were governed by Hyeonggam (현감 县监) of 6th junior rank.

Administrative divisions

During most of the Joseon period, Korea was divided into eight provinces (do; 도; 道). The eight provinces' boundaries remained unchanged for almost five centuries from 1413 to 1895, and formed a geographic paradigm that is still reflected today in the Korean Peninsula's administrative divisions, dialects, and regional distinctions. The names of all eight provinces are still preserved today, in one form or another.

Military

Royal Guards

Royal guards, the Naegeumwi were elite troops consisting of 200 men tasked with guarding the king, queen, and ministers. These were soldiers hand-selected by the king. They usually wore red robes.

Kings private guard

The King's private guard consisted of personal bodyguards of the king. They wore black robes.

Central army

The central army consisted of 50,000 troops. They usually wore black and white robes. They were commanded by generals appointed by the king.

Foreign affairs

China

Although the Joseon dynasty considered 1392 as the foundation of the Joseon kingdom, Imperial China did not immediately acknowledge the new government on the Korean peninsula. In 1401, the Ming court recognized Joseon as a tributary state in its tributary system. In 1403, the Yongle Emperor conveyed a patent and a gold seal to Taejong of Joseon, thus confirming his status and that of his dynasty.

Traditionally, China had a laissez-faire policy toward Joseon; despite being a tributary of China, Joseon was autonomous in its internal and external affairs, and China did not manipulate or interfere in them. However, after 1879, China abandoned its laissez-faire policy and became directly involved in the affairs of Joseon. This "radical change in China's policy" was in reaction to the growing influence of Western powers and Japan in Joseon, and to ensure China's national security. China's new policy toward Joseon was set by Li Hongzhang and implemented by Yuan Shikai. According to Ming-te Lin: "Li's control of Korea from 1885 to 1894 through Shikai as resident official represented an anachronistic policy of intervention toward Korea."

Gyorin

This long-term, strategic policy contrasts with the gyorin (kyorin) (neighborly relations) diplomacy in dealings with Jurchen, Japan, Ryukyu Kingdom, Siam and Java. Gyorin was applied to a multi-national foreign policy. The unique nature of these bilateral diplomatic exchanges evolved from a conceptual framework developed by the Chinese. Gradually, the theoretical models would be modified, mirroring the evolution of a unique relationship.

Japan

As an initial step, a diplomatic mission was dispatched to Japan in 1402. The Joseon envoy sought to bring about the re-establishment of amicable relations between the two countries and he was charged to commemorate the good relations which existed in ancient times. This mission was successful, and shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was reported to have been favorably impressed by this initial embassy. Not less than 70 diplomatic missions were dispatched from the Joseon capital to Japan before the beginning of Japan's Edo period.

Reciprocal missions were construed as a means of communication between Korean kings and Japanese shōguns of almost equal ranking. The emperors of Japan at the time were figureheads with no actual political or military power and the actual political and military rulers of Japan that Joseon communicated with were the shoguns who were represented as "tycoon of Japan" in many foreign communications in order to avoid the conflict with the Sinocentric system in which the emperor of China was the highest authority, and all rulers of tributary states were known as "kings".

Society

The exact population figures of Joseon-era Korea are disputed as government records of households are considered unreliable in this period. Between 1810 and 1850, the population declined approximately 10% and remained stable. Before the introduction of modern medicine by the Korean Empire government in the early 20th century, the average life expectancy for peasant and commoner Korean males was 24 and for females 26 years, accounting for infant mortality.

Joseon Korea installed a centralised administrative system controlled by civil bureaucrats and military officers who were collectively called Yangban. By the end of the 18th century, the yangban had acquired most of the traits of a hereditary nobility except that the status was based on a unique mixture of family position, gwageo examinations for Confucian learning, and a civil service system. The family of a yangban who did not succeed to become a government official for the third generation lost their yangban status and became commoners. For most part, the only way to become a government official was to pass a series of gwageo exams (One had to pass "lesser gwageo" exam (소과) in both of two stages to qualify for greater gwageo exam, which again one had to pass in both of two stages to become a government official.) The yangban and the king, in an uneasy balance, controlled the central government and military institutions. The proportion of yangban may have reached as high as 30% by 1800, due to the later practices of transaction of yangban status to peasants, although there was considerable local variation. As the government was small, a great many yangban were local gentry of high social status, but not always of high income.

Another portion of the population were slaves or serfs (nobi), "low borns" (cheonmin) or untouchable outcastes (baekjeong). Slavery in Korea was hereditary, as well as a form of legal punishment. The nobi were socially indistinct from freemen other than the ruling yangban class, and some possessed property rights, legal entities and civil rights. Hence, some scholars argue that it's inappropriate to call them "slaves", while some scholars describe them as serfs. There were both government- and privately owned nobi, and the government occasionally gave them to yangban. Privately owned nobi could be inherited as personal property. During poor harvests, many sangmin people would voluntarily become nobi in order to survive. The nobi population could fluctuate up to about one-third of the population, but on average the nobi made up about 10% of the total population. Joseon slaves could, and often did, own property. Private slaves could buy their freedom.

Many of the remaining 40-50% of the population were surely farmers, but recent work has raised important issues about the size of other groups: merchants and traders, local government or quasi-governmental clerks (Chungin), craftsmen and laborers, textile workers, etc. Given the size of the population, it may be that a typical person had more than one role. Most farming was, at any rate, commercial, not subsistence. In addition to generating additional income, a certain amount of occupational dexterity may have been required to avoid the worst effects of an often heavy and corrupt tax system.

During the Late Joseon, the Confucian ideals of propriety and "filial piety" gradually came to be equated with a strict observance to a complex social hierarchy, with many fine gradations. By the early 18th century the social critic Yi Junghwan (1690–1756) sarcastically complained that "With so many different ranks and grades separating people from one another, people tend not to have a very large circle of friends." But, even as Yi wrote, the informal social distinctions of the Early Joseon were being reinforced by legal discrimination, such as Sumptuary law regulating the dress of different social groups, and laws restricting inheritance and property ownership by women. Precisely because of the tenets of the Confucian Classic of Filial Piety, the adult male practice of Joseon Korea prescribed to keep both hair and beard, in contrast to the Japanese Tokugawa period.

Yet, these laws may have been announced precisely because social mobility was increasing, particularly during the prosperous century beginning about 1710. The original social hierarchy of the Joseon era was developed based on the social hierarchy of the Goryeo era. In the 14th–16th centuries, this hierarchy was strict and stable. Since economic opportunities to change status were limited, no law was needed.

In the late 17–19th centuries, however, new commercial groups emerged, and the old class system was extremely weakened. Especially, the population of Daegu region's Yangban class was expected to reach nearly 70 percent in 1858.

In 1801, Government-owned slaves were all emancipated, and the institution gradually died out over the next century. By 1858 the nobi population stood at about 1.5 percent of the total population of Korea. The institution was completely abolished as part of a social plan in the Gabo Reform of 1894.

Culture

The Joseon Dynasty presided over two periods of great cultural growth, during which Joseon culture created the first Korean tea ceremony, Korean gardens, and extensive historic works. The royal dynasty also built several fortresses and palaces.

Clothing

During the Joseon period, jeogori of women's hanbok became gradually tightened and shortened. In the 16th century, jeogori was baggy and reached below the waist, but by the 19th century, jeogori was shortened to the point that it did not cover the breasts, so another piece of cloth (heoritti) was used to cover them. At the end of the 19th century, Daewon-gun introduced Magoja, a Manchu-style jacket, to Korea, which is often worn with hanbok to this day.

Chima was full-skirted and jeogori was short and tight in the late Joseon period. Fullness in the skirt was emphasized round the hips. Many undergarments were worn underneath chima such as darisokgot, soksokgot, dansokgot, and gojengi to achieve a desired silhouette. Because jeogori was so short it became natural to expose heoritti or heorimari which functioned like a corset. The white linen cloth exposed under jeogori in the picture is heoritti.

The upper classes wore hanbok of closely woven ramie cloth or other high-grade lightweight materials in warm weather and of plain and patterned silks the rest of the year. Commoners were restricted by law as well as resources to cotton at best. The upper classes wore a variety of colors, though bright colors were generally worn by children and girls and subdued colors by middle-aged men and women. Commoners were restricted by law to everyday clothes of white, but for special occasions they wore dull shades of pale pink, light green, gray, and charcoal. Formally, when Korean men went outdoors, they were required to wear overcoats known as durumagi which reach the knees.

Art

The Mid-Joseon period painting styles moved towards increased realism. A national painting style of landscapes called "true view" began - moving from the traditional Chinese style of idealized general landscapes to particular locations exactly rendered. While not photographic, the style was academic enough to become established and supported as a standardized style in Korean painting. At this time China ceased to have pre-eminent influence, Korean art took its own course, and became increasingly distinctive to the traditional Chinese painting.

Ceramics are a form of popular art during the Joseon period. Examples of ceramics include white porcelain or white porcelain decorated with cobalt, copper red underglaze, blue underglaze and iron underglaze. Ceramics from the Joseon period differ from other periods because artists felt that each piece of art deserved its own uniquely cultivated personality.

Beginning in the 10th century, white porcelain has been crafted in Korea. Historically overshadowed by the popularity of celadon, it was not until the 15th and 16th centuries that white porcelain was recognized for its own artistic value. Among the most prized of Korean ceramics are large white jars. Their shape is symbolic of the moon and their color is associated with the ideals of purity and modesty of Confucianism. During this period, the bureau that oversaw the meals and court banquets of the royal family strictly controlled the production of white porcelain.

Blue and white porcelain artifacts decorating white porcelain with paintings and designs in underglaze by using natural cobalt pigment are another example of popular wares of the Joseon period. Many of these items were created by court painters employed by the royal family. During this period, the popular style of landscape paintings is mirrored in the decoration of ceramics. Initially developed by the Chinese at the Jingdezhen kilns in the mid-14th century, Joseon began to produce this type of porcelain from the 15th century under Chinese influence. The first cobalt imported from China was used by Korean artists. In 1463 when sources of cobalt were discovered in Korea, artists and their buyers found the material was inferior in quality and preferred the more expensive imported cobalt. Korean porcelain with imported cobalt decoration contradict the emphasis of an orderly, frugal and moderate life in Neo-Confucianism.

Strikingly different from cobalt, porcelain items with a copper-red underglaze are the most difficult to successfully craft. During production, these items require great skill and attention or will turn gray during the process of firing. While the birthplace of ceramics with copper red underglaze is widely disputed, these items originated during 12th century in Korea and became increasingly popular during the second half of the Joseon period. Some experts have pointed to the kilns of Bunwon-ri in Gwangju, Gyeonggi, a city that played a significant role in the production of ceramics during the Joseon period, as a possible birthplace.

Porcelain was also decorated with iron. These items commonly consisted of jars or other utilitarian pieces.

Literature

During the Joseon period, the Yangban scholars and educated literati studied Confucian classics and Neo-Confucian literature.

The middle and upper classes of Joseon society were proficient in Classical Chinese. The Joseon official records (such as the Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty and Seungjeongwon ilgi) and the written works of the Yangban literati were written in Classical Chinese.

Newspapers like the Hwangseong Sinmun towards the end of the period were written in the Korean language using the Korean mixed script.

Annals of the Joseon Dynasty

The Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty (also known as the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty) are the annual records of the Joseon Dynasty, which were kept from 1413 to 1865. The annals, or sillok, comprise 1,893 volumes and are thought to cover the longest continual period of a single dynasty in the world. With the exception of two sillok compiled during the colonial era, the Annals are the 151st national treasure of Korea and listed in UNESCO's Memory of the World registry.

Uigwe

Uigwe is a collection of royal protocols of the Joseon period, which records and prescribes through text and stylized illustration the important ceremonies and rites of the royal family.

Education

Buddhism and Confucianism

The Joseon kingdom was noted for having Confucianism as its main philosophy. However Buddhism actually was a part of the Joseon period. The study of literary exchanges between Confucian scholar officials and Buddhists shows that Buddhism was not cast out. There literary exchanges show a middle ground of both philosophies. "scholar-officials - Some who in public castigated Buddhism as a heresy and deluded tradition, in private visited temples and associated closely with monks." This shows that while in public some scholars shamed Buddhism their exchanges with Buddhists show that in the very least it was not cast outside of the kingdom.

One example of this is a famous Joseon scholar official (박세당, 朴世堂, 1629–1703). He argues against Buddhism with the following "People say that Han Yu and Ouyang Xiu have harshly criticized Buddhism and therefore have only discussed what is aberrant and have not fully investigated what is profound. People say, their understanding is lacking and they have not fully examined it profoundness. I, myself, don』t think that is the case… The heresies under heaven, they are also rather foul. Among them, Buddhism is the worst. If a person is inclined to Buddhism then he is of the kind that pursues what is foul. Is it not clear that there is nothing further to discuss? It is like Mencius who felt no need to argue in detail when he criticized Yang Zhu and Mozi. Surely, he did not argue further than to say Yang Zhu and Mozi did not respect their fathers and their emperors." However he writes a poem that seemingly supports Buddhism.

Buddhism was a part of the Joseon kingdom. While not supported publicly, privately it was very prevalent in Confucian-scholar officials.

Music

The Joseon period developed several musical forms. The form with the most extant pieces is sijo (Hangul: 시조/Hanja: 时调). Sijo is a poetic form consisting of three lines, each with four feet, traditionally sung very slowly. In Korean verse, a foot is generally a short syntactic unit, such as a noun with an adjective or a verb with an adverb. For example:

Translation

Can tiny insects devour a whole great spreading pine?

Where is the long-billed woodpecker? Why is he not here?

When I hear the sound of falling trees, I cannot contain myself for sorrow.

Here, like other Korean musical forms, each foot can stand on its own. As sijo were sung in Korean, the pioneering of Hangul created the possibility for sijo to be written down without the use of substitutions such as Idu script. The first copy of sijo is of the 'Twelve Songs of Dosan' by Yi Hwang written in 1565, which were written 100 years after the proclamation of Hangul. Additionally, the first anthology of sijo was compiled by Kim Cheontaek in 1728; before the anthology few sijo were written.

Kim Cheontaek's anthology represents a change in the authorship of sijo. At first, sijo were primarily composed by the yangban aristocracy and entertainers of the Kisaeng class. However, by the mid-seventeenth century, the jungin or 「professional class」 were composing sijo as well. This also coincided with a new form of sijo called 「narrative sijo」 (Hangul: 사설시조/Hanja: 辞说时调), in which the first two lines were greatly lengthened.  This expansion is likely a development from the so-called 「irregular sijo」 (Hangul: 엇시조/Hanja: 旕时调), in which there was a minor lengthening of one of the first two lines. While there are very few remaining irregular sijo, and the form has not been revived, there is a sizable body of narrative sijo and the form continues to evolve.

P'ansori (Hangul: 판소리) is another musical form that combines singing and prose to portray a story. Its development likely originates from shaman rituals and the songs within the Jeolla Province. It became a full-fledged musical form by the middle of the eighteenth century, and not long thereafter the yangban aristocracy also became interested in it. Originally there was a set of twelve stories that were sung, but only five were written down, and hence those five are the only ones sung today. Having been developed by commoners, p'ansori usually reflected their attitudes and aspirations, but by becoming popular with the yangban, p'ansori shifted somewhat toward yangban sensibilities and restrictions. P'ansori had a strong influence of the writing of the time, both because of the p'ansori novel (each based on one of the twelve stories) and by increasing the realism of the classical novel.

Science and technology

15th century

The Joseon period under the reign of Sejong the Great was Korea's greatest period of scientific advancement. Under Sejong's new policy, Cheonmin (low-status) people such as Jang Yeong-sil were allowed to work for the government. At a young age, Jang displayed talent as an inventor and engineer, creating machines to facilitate agricultural work. These included supervising the building of aqueducts and canals.

Some of his inventions were an automated (self-striking) water clock (the Jagyeokru) which worked by activating motions of wooden figures to indicate time visually (invented in 1434 by Jang), a subsequent more complicated water-clock with additional astronomical devices, and an improved model of the previous metal movable printing type created in the Goryeo Dynasty. The new model was of even higher quality and was twice as fast. Other inventions were the sight glass, and the udometer.

The highpoint of Korean astronomy was during the Joseon period, where men such as Jang created devices such as celestial globes which indicated the positions of the sun, moon, and the stars. Later celestial globes (Gyupyo, 규표) were attuned to the seasonal variations.

The apex of astronomical and calendarial advances under King Sejong was the Chiljeongsan, which compiled computations of the courses of the seven heavenly objects (five visible planets, the sun, and moon),

developed in 1442. This work made it possible for scientists to calculate and accurately predict all the major heavenly phenomena, such as solar eclipses and other stellar movements.

Honcheonsigye is an astronomical clock created by Song I-yeong in 1669. The clock has an armillary sphere with a diameter of 40 cm. The sphere is activated by a working clock mechanism, showing the position of celestial objects at any given time.

Kangnido, a Korean-made map of the world was created in 1402 by Kim Sa-hyeong (김사형, 金士衡), Yi Mu (이무, 李茂) and Yi Hoe (이회, 李挠). The map was created in the second year of the reign of Taejong of Joseon. The map was made by combining Chinese, Korean and Japanese maps.

16th–19th century

The scientific and technological advance in the late Joseon period was less progressed than the early Joseon period.

16th-century court physician, Heo Jun wrote a number of medical texts, his most significant achievement being Dongeui Bogam, which is often noted as the defining text of Traditional Korean medicine. The work spread to China and Japan, where it is still regarded as one of the classics of Oriental medicine today.

The first soft ballistic vest, Myunjebaegab, was invented in Joseon Korea in the 1860s shortly after the French campaign against Korea (1866). Heungseon Daewongun ordered development of bullet-proof armor because of increasing threats from Western armies. Kim Gi-du and Gang Yun found that cotton could protect against bullets if thick enough, and devised bullet-proof vests made of 30 layers of cotton. The vests were used in battle during the United States expedition to Korea (1871), when the US Navy attacked Ganghwa Island in 1871. The US Army captured one of the vests and took it to the US, where it was stored at the Smithsonian Museum until 2007. The vest has since been sent back to Korea and is currently on display to the public.

Economy

Commerce

During the Goryeo period, Korea had a healthy trade relationship with the Japanese, Chinese, and Manchurians. An example of prosperous, international trade port is Pyongnam. Koreans offered brocades, jewelries, ginseng, silk, and porcelain, renowned famous worldwide. But, during the Joseon period, Confucianism was adopted as the national philosophy, and, in process of eliminating certain Buddhist beliefs, Goryeo Cheongja porcelains were replaced by white Baekja, which lost favour of the Chinese. Also, commerce became more restricted during this time in order to promote agriculture. Because silver was used as currency in China, it played an important role in Korea-China trade.

House of Yi

The following is a simplified relation of Joseon royalty (Korean Imperial Family) during the late period of the dynasty:

• Emperor Gojong (1852–1919) – 26th head of the Korean Imperial Household, adoptive heir to Crown Prince Hyomyeong

　• Emperor Sunjong (1874–1926) – 27th head of the Korean Imperial Household

　• Yi Kang, Prince Imperial Ui (1877–1955) – 5th son of Gojong

　　• Prince Yi Geon (1909–1991) – eldest son of Yi Kang; renounced the Imperial title and heritage by becoming a Japanese citizen in 1947

　　• Prince Yi U (1912–1945) – 2nd son of Yi Kang; adopted as the heir to Yi Jun-yong, grandson of Heungseon Daewongun

　　　• Yi Cheong (1936–)

　　　• Yi Jong (1940–1966)

　　• Yi Hae-won (1919–2020) – 2nd daughter of Yi Kang; married in 1936 to Yi Seung-gyu from the Yongin Yi Clan

　　• Yi Gap (1938–2014) – 9th son of Yi Kang

　　　• Yi Won (1962–) – eldest son of Yi Gap; adopted by Yi Ku as the 30th head of the Korean Imperial Household

　　　　• 1st son (1998–)

　　　　• 2nd son (1999–)

　　• Yi Seok (1941–) – 10th son of Yi Kang; self-claimed head of the Korean Imperial Household

　　　• Yi Hong (1976–), first daughter of Yi Seok

　　　　• 1st daughter (2001–)

　　　• Yi Jin (1979–), 2nd daughter of Yi Seok

　　　• Yi Jeonghun (1980–), son of Yi Seok

　• Yi Un, Imperial Crown Prince (1897–1970) – 28th head of the Korean Imperial Household; married in 1920 to Princess Masako of Nashimoto (Yi Bangja), an imperial member of the Empire of Japan.

　　• Prince Yi Jin (1921–1922)

　　• Prince Yi Ku (1931–2005) — 29th head of the Korean Imperial Household; son of Yi Un

　• Princess Deokhye (1912–1989) — married in 1931 to Count Sō Takeyuki

　　• Jong Jeonghye (1932–?), disappeared since 1956

国号

「朝鲜」原本是朝鲜半岛历史最初的国家古朝鲜的国号。该词最早见于中国古籍《山海经》〈海内经〉：「东海之内，北海之隅，有国名朝鲜」。《尚书大传》对其含义的解释为「朝日鲜明」。高丽时期，「朝鲜」一词被沿用为其国号别称。李成桂建立朝鲜王朝后，在与重臣们共同商讨国号变更事宜后拟定两个国号——「朝鲜」（古朝鲜国名）和「和宁」（李成桂之父李子春就仕之地）奏请明太祖朱元璋裁定。朱元璋认为「东夷之号，惟朝鲜之称美，且其来远，可以本其名而祖之。」，而选定了「朝鲜」为其国号。在有些场合下，朝鲜也会在国号前冠以上国名号，最常见的是「有明朝鲜国」，此外还有「皇明朝鲜国」、「大明朝鲜国」等称谓（但未见冠以大清国号的例子）。

近代开港以后，开始对欧美日本使用「大朝鲜国」的国号，此称呼最早出现于1876年的《日朝修好条规》，1882年通过铸造「大朝鲜国大君主宝」而固定化。1897年改国号为「大韩帝国」。在西方学术界，皆以「Joseon」来称呼这个朝代，并无争议。然而，在今日东亚的学术界，由于政治因素，对该朝代存在著多种称谓。在朝鲜日治时期，朝鲜总督府将该朝代称为「李氏朝鲜」，简称李朝；古代存在的使用朝鲜为国号的国家则被称为「古朝鲜」，以示区别。历代大王实录则被定名为《李朝实录》。

大韩民国成立后，韩国人认为日占时期使用的「李氏朝鲜」有殖民色彩，所以将这一历史时期改名为「朝鲜王朝」（），简称「朝鲜」（）；并把《李朝实录》更名为《朝鲜王朝实录》。。但中国、日本学术界仍然长期沿用「李氏朝鲜」这一称呼。近年来，日本和中国逐渐开始有学者使用「朝鲜王朝」这个称呼。日本的文部科学省在2002年的教科书检定时表示关于「李氏朝鲜」的称呼为「不恰当的表记」。发表该意见的理由为，反映日本的学术研究的成果的说明，需要与朝鲜史学界保持称呼上的一致。

在朝鲜民主主义人民共和国，官方使用「李王朝」（）、「李氏王朝」或「朝鲜封建王朝」（）的称谓，在主体史学被认为是第五个国家主体和第二个统一的国家。由于政治上的忌讳，在朝鲜民主主义人民共和国，「朝鲜」和「王朝」中间必须加「封建」二字，例如称呼历代大王实录为《朝鲜封建王朝实录》。在历史教育的场合，对封建统治者进行批判时使用「李朝封建国家」等称呼。

历史

前期历史

建国

14世纪末，由于长年战乱和蒙古帝国的入侵，高丽王朝已经岌岌可危。1388年，明朝派特使要求高丽归还开元路；高丽重臣崔莹藉此准备与明开战，并派李成桂出兵攻打辽东半岛。李成桂的军队在威化岛遭遇大水，士兵不愿远征，多有逃亡者。李成桂多次请求撤军回国，但都遭到崔莹拒绝，最终导致李成桂发动兵变推翻国王王禑的统治，并立王禑之子——年仅八岁的王昌为王。李成桂发现王禑复辟的企图后，将王禑和王昌都处死，并立王瑶为王。

1392年，李成桂清除高丽宫廷反对派的首领郑梦周，并在流放王瑶到原州之后，自立为王，结束高丽王朝近500年的历史。十一月，李成桂颁诏定都汉阳，建宗庙社稷、宫室城池，同时由郑道传等人制订《朝鲜经国典》。李成桂推行崇尚儒教，贬抑佛法的国策，寺院土地多被没收，贵族庄园里的奴婢都被释放，并且实行开垦农地与改良农具谷种等劝农政策。李成桂还通过招抚、武力征服朝鲜半岛东北地区的女真部落，进一步加强对该地区的管辖，使其疆域达到图们江。

王子之乱与太宗掌权

随著朝鲜新王位的产生和巩固，王位继承人开始成为朝鲜的一个问题。李成桂的五子李芳远曾帮助李成桂铲除郑梦周，在各王子中功劳是最大的。但重臣郑道传希望在朝鲜建立以宰相为中心的统治制度，并成功游说李成桂将其最喜爱的幼子继妃神德王后所生的李芳硕封为世子。郑道传后成为世子辅佐人。郑道传势力下令废除李成桂元妃神懿王后所生王子的侍卫军，并策划铲除元妃所生的所有王子。但李芳远却以破坏长幼之序为名率领宗亲及其势力抢先一步发动政变，闯入宫中将李芳硕杀死，并铲除了郑道传一派，史称「第一次王子之乱」（戊寅靖社）。李成桂次子李芳果在李芳远扶植下成为世子，并继承王位，是为定宗。而李芳远则成为朝鲜实际掌权人。

定宗即位后，李芳远的权力与势力得到进一步的巩固和扩大。定宗元年9月，李芳远提出废除私兵的建议，引发其四兄李芳干一派势力的不满。1400年正月，李芳干及一派与李芳远在开京街头展开激烈的巷战，但战败，史称「第二次王子之乱」（庚辰靖社）。第二次王子之乱后，定宗让位给李芳远，是为太宗。李芳干被流放，朴苞流放后被处死。

太宗即位后，废除王子和贵族的私兵制度。私兵制度的废除有效预防可能的反叛，并增加国家军队中的士兵人数。太宗第二条措施是修改土地税法，普查人口。随著新发现土地的增加，国家收入增加一倍，使王权得到巩固，为其王位继承者世宗的统治打下良好基础。

世宗时期

1418年8月，世宗在其父太宗退位前两个月登基。1419年5月世宗在太宗的建议和指导下己亥东征清除对马岛的倭寇。1419年9月，对马岛大名被活捉带回朝鲜宫中。1443年癸亥条约签订。对马岛大名被授权每年与朝鲜进行50船的贸易，向朝鲜朝廷进贡并负责防止倭寇对朝鲜海港的侵扰。

在北部边疆，世宗下令修建四郡六镇以加强边防。世宗还制定诸多巩固国防的法规并倡导新武器的发明和发展。在世宗的带领下，朝鲜研制出许多火箭及火炮，如对神机箭的改造。1433年，世宗派金宗瑞击败女真兀狄哈部落，巩固对朝鲜半岛东北部咸镜道等地方的统治。目前朝鲜半岛的领土基本上与世宗时期相符。

在世宗统治期间，朝鲜的科技、文化等方面都得到很大的发展。世宗大力倡导朝鲜臣民学习文学。世宗在景福宫建立集贤殿，亲自选拔人才进行各种的学术研究。其中最著名的是《训民正音》的编辑和朝鲜谚文书写系统的发明。朝鲜谚文的发明大大提高朝鲜平民的文化普及，并为朝鲜民族创造出自己独特的书写文字。由于世宗的功绩，被韩国人尊称为「世宗大王」。

世祖、成宗时期

1450年世宗去世，其长子文宗即位。文宗基本上继续世宗的政策，不过即位仅两年就因病去世。文宗年仅12岁的儿子端宗即位。端宗的叔父首阳大君李瑈用韩明浍、郑麟趾等人之计，在1453年发动政变，史称癸酉靖难，李瑈以死士将2位辅助端宗的重臣皇甫仁和金宗瑞杀死而掌握实权。1455年端宗被迫内禅予李瑈，就是朝鲜世祖。后来成三问、朴彭年等六位大臣密谋使端宗复辟，事败，被世祖杀害，史称「死六臣事件」。世祖为了避免此类事件再度发生，也赐死端宗。

虽然世祖王位来自于篡位，世祖却像太宗一样治国有方。经过一系列的改革，世祖加强王权，使国家的经济和军事力量得到近一步的加强。朝鲜王朝的基本法典《经国大典》亦在世祖时期开始编纂，被誉为「国家的立国磐石」。

世祖之后，其子睿宗成为朝鲜第八任君主。但体弱多病的睿宗即位不到两年就因病去世。1469年，睿宗的侄子成宗即位。成宗统治期间，国家经济文化繁荣发展。成宗邀请士林派来到宫中参与政治，在宫中建立弘文馆，并成立由儒学家组成的智囊团为治理国家献言献策，完善包括司宪府、司谏院和弘文馆的朝鲜三司制度。成宗时期是续世宗后，朝鲜又一个文化发展黄金时期，大量书籍在这一时期发表问世。

四大士祸

成宗的儿子燕山君被认为是朝鲜的昏君。在他统治期间，朝鲜发生戊午士祸和甲子士祸，大批知识分子被屠杀。燕山君在得知生母不是贞显王后而是废妃尹氏后，行为开始变得异常。尹氏因被指控出于妒嫉毒害成宗妃子而被成宗赐毒酒而死。在得知此事后，燕山君杀死指控尹氏的严、郑两贵人和支持赐死尹氏的官员及其家眷。对世祖篡位有偏词的士林派学者也遭到燕山君杀害。燕山君还搜掠千名美女为其作乐，把成均馆当成花天酒地的地方。由于有民众使用谚文书写传单痛斥燕山君，燕山君还下令禁止谚文的使用。燕山君统治仅维持12年。1506年中宗反正后，燕山君遭成希颜、朴元宗等朝臣废黜，被流放至江华岛，两个月后病死，得年30岁。因以暴君身分被废，因而无庙号、尊号、諡号、陵名等。

中宗是个平庸之人，只是因所处的历史时期而被推上王位。不过在中宗时期，中宗的大臣士林派首领赵光祖开展许多大规模的改革。赵光祖建立乡约以加强地方的管理，并通过土地改革降低贫富差距。赵光祖还通过发行简易本的儒学在大众中传播儒家思想，并致力于精简国家机构。据《朝鲜王朝实录》记载，由于赵光祖的严厉监督，在这一时期朝鲜的官员无人敢收受贿赂或滥用职权。赵光祖的激进改革得到广大民众的拥护，但遭到帮助中宗登上王位的勋旧派的强烈反对，并密谋陷害赵光祖。中宗后宫熙嫔洪氏（勋旧派洪景舟之女）在王宫后山通过涂蜂蜜和虫子咬制造上有「走肖为王」字样的树叶。使中宗相信老天在告诉他赵光祖要谋反。1519年，赵光祖被赐死，史称「己卯士祸」。在随后的50年中，朝鲜朝廷党派纷争，腐败盛行。

中期历史

朝鲜王朝中期党派纷争夺越演越烈，国力削弱，倭寇与后金入侵使国家几尽毁灭。

党派纷争

士林派在燕山君、中宗和明宗统治期间势力一直被削弱。宣祖统治时期，士林派重新掌权但很快分裂成为东人党和西人党两派。东人党又分裂为南人党与北人党。西人党又分为老论派和少论派。随著权力在这些党派间的更迭，随之而来的是血腥的清剿和相互不断的报复。

1589年的己丑狱事就是其中一例。东人党的郑汝立有个抗击倭寇的组织，成员们进行军事训练。这个组织宣扬没有阶级的社会，因此其性质和目的受到人们的质疑。西人党的首领郑澈负责调查此事。郑澈指控郑汝立密谋造反，并藉此事清剿与郑汝立团体有任何牵连的东人党。最终有千名东人党人被处死或流放。

壬辰倭乱

16世纪末，丰臣秀吉统一日本后，蓄谋以朝鲜为踏板攻打明朝，于1592年4月率15万陆军和数万水军入侵朝鲜。倭寇攻占釜山和东莱城后，兵分东、中、西三路北上，20天后攻下汉城，后又占领平壤。朝鲜宣祖逃往鸭绿江边的义州。全罗左道水军节度使李舜臣率领朝鲜水军抵抗外敌，并研制出了极具战斗力的龟船，在玉浦、赤珍浦、泗川、唐浦，特别是闲山岛等海战中击败敌军，有效遏制住倭寇「水陆并进」的计划，使其难以向平壤以北地区进犯。在陆上，虽然朝鲜官兵节节败退，但朝鲜各地民众却自发组织义兵，抵抗倭寇入侵，出现了郭再佑、等义兵部队，取得了延安大捷、晋州大捷等胜利。

1592年7月，明朝应朝鲜宣祖求助请求，从辽东派遣了一支数千人的队伍援助。辽东副总兵祖承训轻敌率兵攻打平壤，结果战败。游击将军史儒等阵亡。同年8月，明神宗任命宋应昌为兵部右侍郎经略主持援朝事务，10月任命李如松为援朝提督。同年12月，李如松率4万馀名明军进入朝鲜。1593年1月，明朝两国联军收复平壤，后乘胜追击拿下开城，收复黄海、平安、京畿、江源四道，但在碧蹄馆之战中受挫。2月，朝鲜将领权栗在幸州山城之战以少胜多，大败倭寇。4月，占据汉城的倭寇最终弃城脱逃，后与明朝两国议和。朝鲜随后陆续收复汉江以南地区。李如松主力部队撤出朝鲜。

1597年1月，丰臣秀吉派小西行长和加藤清正等率14万大军卷土重来，再次入侵朝鲜。事先已有准备的明朝很快派出以邢玠为总督，杨镐为经略，麻贵为大将军的14万援朝军队。全州失守后，明军在稷山之战中挫败倭寇，使其难以北上。此后，明军攻打蔚山。小西行长派水军增援。杨镐弃兵先逃，导致明军惨败。明神宗后将杨镐免职，任命万世德代理经略，并派陈璘和邓子龙率明水军参战。朝鲜方面重新任用被陷害的李舜臣。1597年9月，李舜臣的水军在鸣梁海战中取得巨大胜利。1598年11月，李舜臣与明将邓子龙在露梁海战中大败倭寇，两人也在此次战役中阵亡。此后，倭寇从朝鲜全部撤退，其通过占领朝鲜并以之为跳板进攻明朝的计划最终以失败告终。

后金入侵

1618年，努尔哈赤统一女真后开始攻打明朝。后金和明都想联合朝鲜。由于明曾帮朝鲜击退倭寇，对明朝颇为不满的光海君还是在萨尔浒之战中派兵支援明朝。1623年，仁祖反正即位后，开始执行更公开的助明打后金的策略。但由于李适造反，仁祖需在汉阳部署重兵以维护首都稳定，导致防卫北部边疆军力不足。1627年，皇太极鉴于向西进攻受挫，决定派阿敏带领3万部队攻打朝鲜，并清剿败退到朝鲜的明将毛文龙，史称「丁卯胡乱」。虽然双方最后议和订立「兄弟国的盟约」，但朝鲜亲明的立场并没有改变。

1636年，皇太极在征服东北和内蒙大片地区后称帝，改国号清，让朝鲜称臣遭到拒绝。在盛京参加皇太极登基仪式的朝鲜使节也拒绝向皇太极行三跪九叩之礼。同年12月，皇太极亲自率领十万军队入侵朝鲜，俘虏躲在江华岛的仁祖后妃、王子和宗室76人，迫使被围困在南汉山城的仁祖投降，臣服，史称「丙子胡乱」。皇太极藉此向朝鲜索要大量财物，掠夺朝鲜人口，并让朝鲜在三田渡建立颂扬清太宗的大清皇帝功德碑。仁祖两位王子李𣳫和李淏入清作人质。朝鲜从此断绝与明的藩属关系成为清的藩属。

仁祖之后的孝宗曾试图联合南明、三藩割据势力、台湾郑氏政权等反清势力北伐灭清，但最终因财政困难而计划搁浅。清控制中国后开始逐渐与朝鲜交好，送还被扣作人质的朝鲜王子，消减贡物要求，还两次邀请朝鲜与八旗军队结联军北上讨伐侵扰中国东北边境的沙俄军队，史称「罗禅征伐」。随著清朝进入「康乾盛世」，朝鲜文人对清朝的态度也发生变化，出现了倡导向清人学习的北学派。

后期历史

短暂复兴

在日本和后金入侵朝鲜之后的200年里，朝鲜半岛一直没有战争发生。实学在朝鲜开始兴起。早期的朝鲜实学者主张一系列包括科举、税收、科技和农业技术的改革，旨在复兴被倭与女真损毁的国家。在显宗统治时期，实学者金堉的改革不仅使朝鲜税收增加，也使农民受益。

肃宗死后，世子李昀继位，即景宗。景宗二年因为立储问题发生辛壬士祸。由于景宗成婚多年始终无子，于是在景宗元年册立李昑为王世弟。然而当时朝廷的党争激烈，因此李昑的储位并不稳固，不过景宗友爱弟弟，再加上嫡母仁元王后的庇护，终究安然无恙。四年八月二十五日，景宗病逝，王世弟即位。由于景宗壮年早逝，因此坊间也有新王弑兄的传言出现。英祖四年（1728年），少论派人李麟佐、郑希亮等起兵，以宗室密丰君（昭显世子曾孙）李坦为君，但以失败告终，史称李麟佐之乱。

英祖十五年（1739年）为中宗元配废妃慎氏复位，追尊为端敬王后。二十二年（1746年）复金宗瑞、皇甫仁（端宗朝大臣）等人官职，二十三年（1747年）又恢复安平大君李瑢（世宗嫡三子）的官职。英祖三十三年王妃徐氏病逝，英祖在两年后册立大臣金汉耇之女为新任王妃，他和两任妻子之间都没有任何子嗣，虽然他有两子十二女，不过都是由后宫所出。其中长子李緈早夭，次子李愃虽然顺利长大成人，然而因为某些因素，导致英祖被迫将李愃关进米柜饿死。王位后来则由世孙李算（李愃之次子）继承。英祖五十二年三月五日，英祖升遐于庆熙宫集庆堂。朝鲜肃宗和英祖统治时期，为了防止党派的争夺，朝鲜君主采取对党派一视同仁的政策。朝鲜官员的任命与其所处的党派分离。

正祖被后世认为是极为仁孝的君王，因为朝鲜的礼法制度，他没有办法尊母亲惠庆宫洪氏为王大妃，但对其相当的孝顺，为其屡上尊号，最终追尊为献敬王后。正祖在十一岁那年目睹父亲庄献世子的惨死，即位后除了追尊宗法父亲孝章世子为真宗外，对亲生父亲的追慕活动也无休无止，先是将垂恩墓升格为永佑园，祠堂垂恩庙升格为景慕宫，并为其屡次加上尊号。正祖十三年，决定将永佑园迁至风水吉地京畿道水原郡华山脚下，仿照世祖的光陵加以扩建，并更名为显隆园。正祖十八年在水原八达山麓开工建设水原华城和水原行宫。正祖计划将华城修建为农、工、商兼备的城市，从南方拱卫汉城。1800年庚申（嘉庆五年）六月二十八日，正祖去世于昌庆宫迎春轩。在位二十四年，终年四十九岁。葬于杨州健陵。

朝鲜英祖和正祖统治时期，朝鲜开始出现复兴。正祖统治时期开展更为开放的社会改革政策，得到实学者的广泛支持。朝鲜的社会文化在这一时期得到长足发展。

衰退

1800年，英正时代结束后，继位者多半年幼加上无嗣，而安东金氏、丰壤赵氏等外戚势力逐渐崛起，权倾朝野，家族内曾有三位女性成为王后，并有多人曾出任领议政，称为「势道政治」，王权旁落。直到1863年，高宗即位，其父兴宣大院君摄政时逐渐削弱外戚势力，王权在朝政上的影响力才又有效巩固。

1860年代中期，兴宣大院君统治闭关锁国，迫害国内外的基督徒。最终导致1866年8月法国派舰队攻打江华岛，法国战败，史称「丙寅洋扰」。兴宣大院君摄政初期的大部分精力主要是修复景福宫。1868年，美国商船「舍门将军号」在平壤靠岸，试图与朝鲜开展商贸外交，但与当地居民发生冲突，部份船员被杀害。1871年，美国派兵到江华岛，要求朝鲜就「舍门将军号事件」道歉，但遭到朝鲜拒绝。外交斡旋发展成为武装冲突。美国的进攻导致朝鲜的伤亡，但外交上仍是无果，最后撤兵，史称「辛未洋扰」。

1873年，兴宣大院君引退，高宗名义上正式掌权，但实权被高宗王后闵妃（明成皇后）掌握。朝鲜宫中的高官都是闵妃的亲属。明治维新后的日本，1876年依靠西方先进武器迫使朝鲜签订《江华岛条约》。日本取得自由勘测朝鲜海口、领事裁判权、贸易等权利。

外强的入侵和朝鲜腐败统治使民众不满。1894年1月10日，东学南接派代表人物全琫准在全罗道发起东学农民革命，提出「辅国安民，斥倭斥洋，尽灭权贵」。高宗恐慌，向清朝政府告急。清朝派出3,000军队与起义军达成停火。1894年6月8日日本得知清朝派兵到朝鲜后，派出8,000军队占领景福宫，并成立亲日政府。此次事件最终升级成为甲午战争 (1894年–1895年)。1895年4月17日，日本与清签订《马关条约》后，朝鲜不再是清的藩属国。高宗闵妃欲联合沙俄牵制日本，推翻朴泳孝亲日内阁，组建亲俄内阁，遭日本右翼杀害，史称「乙未事变」。此后的金弘集亲日内阁颁布「断发令」等改革法令，遭到朝鲜民众反对。以乙未事变和断发令为导火线，朝鲜爆发全国性大规模反日义兵运动，金弘集内阁垮台。

大韩帝国与日韩合并

俄馆播迁后，沙俄在朝鲜半岛的势力得到进一步的提高，而日本则在失去辽东之后，再次遭到重挫。俄日两国的对峙为朝鲜的独立提供了良好时机。1896年，朝鲜开始使用建阳的年号纪年。为进一步实现独立，朝鲜群臣纷纷上奏高宗建立与中国和日本一样的帝制。在群臣多次建议下，高宗最终接受了文武众臣的建议，并于1897年10月12日在圜丘坛祭天并登基称帝，宣布大韩帝国正式成立，改年号为「光武」，并开始对朝鲜军事、经济、私有制、教育等进行适应工业化的光武改革。

1905年，日本在旅顺会战战胜沙俄，双方签署《朴次茅斯和约》，日俄战争结束。1905年11月17日，日本与朝鲜签订《乙巳条约》，朝鲜成为日本的保护国。伊藤博文成为日本在朝鲜的第一任统监。1909年伊藤博文在哈尔滨被朝鲜民族主义者安重根刺杀身亡。1910年，《日韩合并条约》签订。

政治

朝鲜王朝的政治结构采用中央集权制。1469年完成的《经国大典》确立新的政治制度。以后虽然官职的名称存废有一定的变动，但是整个朝鲜王朝时期的官职制度总体上都遵循《经国大典》的规定。文、武两班由正一品到从九品，共计九品十八级。按朝议时是否坐在堂上，分为堂上、堂下官。按是否参与定期朝会分为参上、参下官。四品以上文官为大夫，武官为将军。正五品以下的文官为郎，武官为校尉和副尉。

王室

朝鲜君主受中原王朝册封国王，地位相当于中原的亲王，自称「寡人」，被尊称「主上」、「殿下」。国王的正室称王妃，被尊称「中殿」。储君称王世子，被尊称「邸下」。前任国王的王妃称「王大妃」，前前任国王的王妃称「大王大妃」。

中央政府

议政府是朝鲜国王之下的最高中央行政机构（相当于元朝和明初的中书省），其首领为领议政（相当于元朝和明初的中书丞相）。领议政之下为左右议政，与领议政同为正一品。再下为从一品左右赞成、正二品左右参赞。再下有正四品舍人、正五品检详、正八品司录。

议政府之下设有吏、户、礼、兵、刑、工六曹（相当于同时期明朝的六部）。吏曹负责执行官吏的任免；户曹掌管户口和租税；礼曹负责礼仪、教育、科举、外交；兵曹掌管军队和武官的任免；刑曹掌法律事务；工曹掌管手工业、山林湖泊，以及土木工程。六曹长官称判书（正二品），相当于中国的六部尚书；副职称为参判（从二品），相当于中国的侍郎，往下有六曹参议（正三品堂上）、六曹参知（正三品堂上）、六曹正郎（正五品）等官职。朝鲜王朝早期效仿明太祖直接管理六部的方法，实行六曹直启制，六曹直接对国王负责，世宗后改行议政府署事制，六曹归议政府管辖。

此外还有三司（司谏院、司宪府和弘文馆），以及承政院、义禁府等。司谏院是负责规谏君主不当行为的谏诤机构。司宪府是负责监察官吏的监察机构。弘文馆相当于世宗时期的集贤殿，是朝鲜君主的智囊团。三司是牵制朝鲜君主，以及议政院、六曹等行政机构的机关。其长官为大司谏（从二品）、大司宪（从二品）和大提学（正二品）。承政院是负责拟定和传达朝鲜君主诏令文书的秘书机构。义禁府按照君主指令审理官僚贵族违法行为。

地方政府

地方行政分为京畿、江原、庆尚、忠清、全罗、平安、咸镜和黄海八道。各道设有观察使为长官。在道之下设有、都护府、府、郡、县等行政区划。牧和都护府置「使」，府置「」，郡置「守」，县置「令」或「」。地方官员统称为「」，直接管理地方行政、司法，为中央政府徵收税役，并受观察使统辖监察。守令和观察使都由中央政府外派，任期分别为5年和1年。为防止谋私利，守令不能在其长期居住地任职。

各级地方行政设有与中央政府六曹相似的「六房」（吏、户、礼、兵、刑、工）。六房由当地世袭「乡吏」行使职权。乡吏不授官品，也无俸禄。各郡县设有民选的「乡厅」，负责辅佐，监察乡吏，反映民情。为方便地方与中央的联系，各郡县在汉城还设立「京在所」，并有留住汉城的乡吏「京邸吏」。

军队

朝鲜王朝实行文人治军和兵将分离制度，无定将、无定卒，类似轮流服役的预备役军队，而非常备军。西班外官职包括兵马节度使、兵马防御使、水军统御使、水军防御使、水军中军、（下三道：全罗道、庆尚道、忠清道）三道水军统御使、三道水军统制使（均为从二品）；兵马节制使、水军节度使、巡营中军、镇营将（均为正三品堂上）；兵马佥节制使、水军佥节制使、兵马虞侯（均为从三品）；水军虞侯（正四品）；兵马同佥节制使、兵马万户、水军同佥节制使、水军万户（均为从四品）、兵马评事（正六品）、兵马节制都尉、监牧官（均为从六品）、别将、权管别将（从九品）。

由于重文轻武，武官地位低，也有文官任武将的情形。

行政区划

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朝鲜王朝历代都把全国分为汉城府、四都（广州府、开城府、江华府、水原府）和八道，八道俗称朝鲜八道。朝鲜时代的八道行政区域如下：

八道之下设五府、五大都护府、二十牧、六十五都护府、七十七郡、二十六县（令）、一百三十二县（监）。1896年的乙未改革将庆尚、全罗、忠清、黄海、京畿五道分左右两道；永安道（咸镜道）分南北两道；平安道分东西两道；江原道分岭东、岭西两部。

除了行政划分以外，古代朝鲜还按传统习惯将全国划为六个大区：关北（咸镜道、平安道）；关西（黄海道，平安道南部，以及江原道西部）；关东（江原道太白山以东的部分，又称岭东）；畿湖（京畿道全部和忠清道的一部）；湖南（忠清道一部分加上全罗道）；岭南（庆尚道）。

高宗时期，曾实行过两次行政改革，一道把朝鲜八道分为23府，但后来又再改成13道，即把平安、庆尚、咸镜、全罗、忠清五道划分为南北两道，成为十三道。

经济

农业

朝鲜建国初期进行了土地改革，并采取各种措施促进农业发展，使农业得到很大的提升。据《世宗实录地理志》记载，15世纪20年代朝鲜全国耕地面积达1,686,107结，其中水田面积占28.1%。朝鲜朝廷大力推动各道的水利灌溉建设，15世纪中叶，朝鲜全国建有大小水库300处。由于农业耕作方法的改善，土地利用率得到提高。轮种法取代了以往的易田法。一年两熟、两年三熟，以及先进的施肥方法等农业技术得到推广。农作物种子特别是稻种也得到改良。1720年，水田在耕地面积的比例已经提高到37.6%，南方各道水田面积占到50%以上。17世纪后半叶，水稻插秧技术得到普及，并开始使用新的农具。

朝鲜王朝前期经济作物与畜牧业有很大的发展。棉花、大麻、苎麻、桑树、楮、莞草、竹等经济作物的发展对手工业的发展也起到了推动作用。朝鲜的牧场由国家直接管理，主要饲养马匹和牛羊等。《世宗实录地理志》记载了58处国家牧场。17世纪，黄烟、辣椒、角瓜等经济作物的种植面积大幅增加。人参也开始人工种植，种植面积逐渐扩大。

手工业

朝鲜的手工业主要有纺织、造纸、印刷、矿业、冶炼、火药火炮制造、陶瓷、编席等。纺织手工业是朝鲜手工业的重要组成部分，分为棉织、丝织、夏布和麻布纺织手工业等。以三南地区（庆尚道、忠清道、全罗道）为中心的棉织手工业在纺织手工业中占主导地位。黄海道和平安道是丝织手工业的中心。夏布纺织手工业主要集中在忠清道。麻布纺织则遍及全国，以北部地区更为普遍。

朝鲜造纸业非常发达。纸张产量和质量都很高，种类也很多。1415年，朝鲜设立了造纸署大规模生产优质纸张。朝鲜的活字印刷业也很发达。1403年，朝鲜设立了铸字所，出版印刷了许多书籍。

铁、铜、金、银等矿业和冶炼业也是朝鲜重要的工业，为朝鲜社会制造农具、武器、器皿等金属制品。铁矿业是朝鲜矿业的主导。据《世宗实录》记载，当时朝鲜有60多所铁矿场，主要分布在庆尚道和咸镜道。铜的产地主要是黄海道的长渊和庆尚道的灵山、昌原等地。

商业

商业随著农业与手工业的发展而诞生。朝鲜朝廷在汉城、开城、平壤、全州等大城市设有官府指定的商业场所「市廛」。市廛商人须从官府获得经营商品的特权，同时还要承担向朝廷提供各种必要物资的义务。除市廛外，大城市里还有个人经营的小店铺「坐商」，以及流动小商贩「褓负商」。部分商人通过经商，积累了大量的财富成为富商大贾，按不同地区被称为京商（汉城）、松商（开城）、柳商（平壤）、湾商（义州）。随著商品流通的发展，被称为「场门」的集市最早在全罗道开始出现，16世纪末扩展到京畿道、忠清道、庆尚道等整个中南部地区。据《》记载，17世纪朝鲜各地郡、镇的村庄都有5日集市。

对外贸易

十七世纪后半叶，朝鲜的对外贸易得到很大的发展，私营贸易超过了官营贸易。朝鲜与中国的贸易最为活跃。鸭绿江沿岸的贸易称为中江开市（1593年），图们江沿岸的贸易称为北关开市（有会宁开市（1638年）和庆源开市（1646年））。中江开市后被鸭绿江对岸凤凰城的栅门后市所取代。

1609年，朝鲜与日本缔结《己酉条约》后，两国贸易开始正常化。双方贸易以主要通过釜山的倭馆进行的私营贸易为主。1673年，朝鲜倭馆的日本人多达一千馀名。1691年，朝鲜还指定了30名专门从事倭馆贸易的商贾。为回避朝鲜政府的监视，日本商人还在加德岛进行黑市贸易。

由于朝鲜地处中国和日本之前，朝鲜商人一方面从清朝买入棉丝卖日本，一方面从日本输入金、银然后转卖给清商。这种转口贸易在朝鲜对外贸易中也占有很大的比重。

外交

与明朝

李成桂建国后对明朝采取「事大以精诚，交邻以信义」的「事大」外交原则，以确保其在朝鲜半岛的统治地位。明太祖朱元璋鉴于元朝东征日本的失败，认为「四方诸夷，皆限山隔海，僻在一隅。得其地不足以供给，得其民不足以使令」，将朝鲜列为不征之国。对于高丽末年的变故，朱元璋采取的是不干涉的政策，并应朝鲜新政权之邀为其选取了国号「朝鲜」，承认其合法地位。不过明朝起初对朝鲜仍然存有顾虑，直到李芳远即位后才对朝鲜册封。双方友好关系从此开始稳步发展。

16世纪末，丰臣秀吉统一日本列岛后发动了侵略朝鲜乃至明朝的战争，通告朝鲜宣祖「吾欲假道贵国，超越山海，直入于明」。朝鲜向明朝求援后，明派重兵相救。明、朝两国联军最终将倭寇驱逐出朝鲜半岛，取得最后胜利。1619年，努尔哈赤率兵攻打明朝。朝鲜亦应邀派姜弘立率领1.3万军队在萨尔浒之战中援助明朝。

与清朝

女真在后金成立前一定程度上也受到朝鲜羁縻。努尔哈赤统一女真建立后金后开始攻打明朝，并想联合朝鲜。由于明曾在万历朝鲜战争帮助朝鲜，朝鲜并没有与后金联合而是帮助明朝攻打后金。1627年2月，后金为先除后患并清剿败退到朝鲜的明将毛文龙部队，征讨朝鲜，史称「丁卯胡乱」。因寡不敌众，仁祖被迫与后金求和，双方结成「兄弟之邦」。1636年8月，后金征服东北和内蒙大片地区后改国号为清，让朝鲜称臣，遭到仁祖拒绝。同年12月，后金再次大规模入侵朝鲜，俘虏躲在江华岛的仁祖后妃和王子，迫使仁祖投降，向清称臣，史称「丙子胡乱」。直至1644年皇太极去世，朝鲜一直处在清朝的威压之下。

1645年开始，随著清军入关进占北京，以及明朝彻底灭亡，朝鲜与清的关系也开始出现缓和。清统治者入驻北京后也日益汉化，摒弃了烧杀掠夺的游牧民族习性，多次消减对朝贡物的要求。此外，清也意识到与朝鲜交好对巩固边防，抵御沙俄入侵的重要性。康熙皇帝在位时期，朝鲜应清之邀两次派兵与八旗军联合北上讨伐沙皇俄国入侵，史称「罗禅征伐」。1735年，乾隆继位后，清对朝鲜甚为友好，很少干涉朝鲜内政。朝鲜与清朝的这种和平友好关系一直持续到1840年的鸦片战争。

1840年，清在鸦片战争中战败后，外国列强开始渗透中国和朝鲜。为保全宗主国地位，清开始干涉介入朝鲜内政、外交。1882年和1884年，清两次派兵镇压了朝鲜壬午兵变和甲申政变，加强了对朝鲜的控制。但随著日本势力在朝鲜的日益加强，清最终在甲午战争中被日本逐出了朝鲜半岛。1898年，清派徐寿明为驻朝公使，两国开始了平等的外交关系。

与日本

朝鲜王朝初期延续了高丽王朝与室町幕府将军的文书与使节往来。太宗时期，对马岛一带倭寇变得猖獗。世宗元年（1419年），世宗派兵平定了对马岛倭寇，史称「己亥东征」。之后，朝鲜应宗贞盛的请求，重新开通了三浦（乃而浦、富山浦、），允许倭人通过在三浦设立的倭馆与朝鲜贸易。15世纪末，随著倭馆倭人的增加，黑市贸易也急剧增加，倭人与朝鲜人时常发生冲突。朝鲜于是下令禁止倭人的黑市贸易，引发倭人不满。中宗五年（1510）发生「三浦倭乱」后，朝鲜关闭了倭馆。1512年，朝鲜虽在对马岛岛主的请求下，重开乃而浦，但倭寇依然猖獗，先后发生「蛇梁倭变」（1544年）、「乙卯倭变」（1555年），双方交往日衰。1592年丰臣秀吉侵略朝鲜，明朝派兵援助。事后与日本断交，至1609年才与江户幕府恢复外交关系。

近代以来，1876年迫使朝鲜签订《江华岛条约》。日本取得一系列经济权益。1894年为了与中国争夺朝鲜的宗主权爆发甲午战争。1895年4月17日，清军战败，《马关条约》签署，朝鲜停止和清朝的藩属关系。为遏制日本，明成皇后试图拉拢俄国成为日本的绊脚石。1895年，明成皇后在景福宫玉壶楼被日本右翼暗杀并焚尸，史称「乙未事变」。日本驻朝鲜全权公使三浦梧楼被认为是乙未事变的主导者。1897年，高宗成立大韩帝国。1905年，日本在旅顺口海战战胜沙俄，双方签署《朴次茅斯和约》，日俄战争结束。1905年11月17日，日本与朝鲜签订《乙巳条约》，朝鲜成为日本的保护国。1910年，《日韩合并条约》签订，大韩帝国灭亡。

与美国

美国人于1845年最早关注朝鲜半岛。当时美国纽约州议员、众议院海军委员会主席普拉特（Z. Pratt）就向众议院提交过《开放朝鲜的议案》，认为应该抓住欧洲列强盯住中国和日本的时机，积极发展与朝鲜的通商机会，应该建立外交关系，但该议案没有通过。1853年1月，一艘美国船只驶入朝鲜东莱府的龙堂浦。8月22日到达平壤府，平安道中军李玄益不准其贸易和传教命立即退去。但舍门将军号继续溯江而上，崔兰轩等人上岸侦察，准备盗掘当地王陵。李玄益驾船追击，遭船员囚禁。双方正式发生冲突，因江水过浅海船不能发挥威力，被朝鲜数百艘装满茅草、浇足了油的火船撞击焚毁，美国船员全部死亡。美国报复攻击导致辛未洋扰发生，派舰只「亚细亚号」攻打江华岛但又被当地军民击退，两次小冲突胜利让李氏自得意满，锁国政策更甚。1866年8月，美国商人普雷斯顿乘坐武装商船「舍门将军号」，发生了舍门将军号事件，美国希望加大对东方的贸易，而朝鲜王朝则采取闭关锁国政策，使得美国第一次用武力打开朝鲜半岛国门的尝试失败。而美国先后于1867年、1868年、1870年和1871年多次企图以炮舰政策强迫朝鲜通商，但最终都遭到了失败。

1878年10月29日，美国海军部向周游非洲的海军提督薛斐尔（Robert Wilson Shufeldt）下了训令，要求用和平的方法，为与朝鲜交涉而尽力。当时的清朝北洋大臣李鸿章得知此事后，便邀请薛斐尔至天津会谈。1881年11月，朝鲜高宗派使节与清朝协议对美修交的问题，并邀请了李鸿章代为主持缔约谈判。1882年初，李鸿章及其麾下便与美国全权大使薛斐尔就朝美通商一事，在天津进行了谈判。5月22日，《朝美修好通商条约》在汉城（今首尔）正式签订。此时朝鲜王朝正式与美国建交，美国在汉城设置了外交机构并派驻公使。

在朝美修约（建交）后至朝鲜被日本吞并前的20多年里，美国曾三次派兵至朝鲜。1888年，朝鲜出现叛乱，为保护侨民，美方向朝鲜半岛沿岸派遣美国海军；1894年至1896年，为保护甲午中日战争后汉城的美国公使馆和美国侨民，当时美方派遣了美国海军陆战队进驻汉城；1904年至1905年，为保护日俄战争期间的美国驻韩公使馆，美方再次派遣陆战队入城。

1905年，日本与大韩帝国签订《乙巳条约》后，美国中断了与朝鲜半岛的外交关系。

与其他国家

1897年改国号之前，共有8个国家与朝鲜王朝建交，除美国和日本外，还有德意志帝国（1883年）、奥匈帝国（1892年）、法国（1886年）、意大利王国（1884年）、俄国（1884年）和英国（1882年），改国号之后又与丹麦（1902年）和比利时（1901年）建交。不过与这些国家的外交关系都在1905年与日本签订《乙巳条约》后中断。

科技

天文学和地理学

朝鲜王宫内的科研机构发明正方案、圭表等天文仪器，以及仰釜日晷、悬珠日晷、天平日晷、定南日晷、自击漏、玉漏等精密仪器。宫廷历法机构编写《七政算内篇》、《七政算外篇》、《诸家历象集》等书籍。18世纪初，实学派还将西方的地转说引入朝鲜。

世宗时代，编纂八卷本《地理册》，按照一定的体系详细叙述朝鲜各州郡的历史变迁、名称由来、山川、部曲、城池、官坊、烽燧、桥梁、津渡、驿站、按姓氏分类的居民构成、牧场、土产、手工业种类、土地的肥瘠、田结数、租税、供纳、运输、四季气候、风俗和路程，相当于一部地理方面的百科全书。与此同时编纂各地的地方志，此后又编写《东国舆地胜览》、《东国舆地备考》等地理书籍。地图方面，先后编纂《八道州郡图》、《八道山川图》、《八道图》、以及按照比例尺绘制的《大东舆地图》。

实用科学

朝鲜王朝时期实用的发明创造活动同样非常活跃。农业书籍包括《农家集成》、《农事直说》、《农桑辑要》、《四时纂要》、《课农小抄》等重要书籍。制造并改进雨量计、水文计等科学仪器。高丽时期发明的铜活字印刷技术和排版术得到广泛应用，1403年在汉城设置铸字所。17世纪的实学家还深入研究西洋算学，洪大容编写《筹解应用》，把古代算术发展到包括代数学和几何学在内的现代数学。

医学

朝鲜王朝时期是朝鲜传统医学的成熟期。由于中国药材路远而昂贵，朝鲜越发意识到使用本土乡药的必要性。1431-1443年间，卢重礼、俞孝通、朴允德等奉世宗之命以《乡药济生集成方》为蓝本，借鉴中国和朝鲜本国医学书籍编撰了朝鲜医学史上的首部集大成的著作《乡药集成方》。世宗时期，朝鲜还对实用性较强的中医方剂学进行了整理，为吸收和同化中国医学提供了有效的方法。1445年，世宗又命金礼蒙等编纂了另一部大型医学著作《医方类聚》。该书共365卷（现存仅262卷）历经朝鲜世宗、世祖、成宗三朝，耗时十馀年于1465年最终刊印，引用中国医书153部，其中包括40多部中国已佚的古医书。

燕山君之后，乡药医学开始逐渐衰落。壬辰倭乱期间，众多无辜百姓死于疾病。当时朝鲜传统医学，中国宋、金、元时期医学，以及刚刚传入的明朝医学等种医学混合在一起，十分混乱。宣祖于是命许浚编撰新的综合医书，纠正错误理论和处方，并选取正确的处方。1610年，许浚花了14年的时间最终完成《东医宝鉴》。《东医宝鉴》是部以《黄帝内经》为理论基础，加之金元四大家的实际医学理论，倡导朝鲜乡药运用的综合性医学理论和临床典籍。它的问世确立了韩医学的独立地位，并最早创用「东医」作为朝鲜传统医学的专用名。乡药也重新得到复兴。

文化

教育

朝鲜王朝时期的教育制度由官学、私学和特殊教育机构组成。官学分为国立高等教育机构成均馆和地方教育机构乡校。在成均馆之下，设有京城东、西、南、中四学，即由高丽五部学堂发展而来的四部学堂。私学有私立中等教育机构书院和初等教育机构书堂。书堂主要招收8-16岁平民子弟，入退学自由，无身份差别，实行单独学习、按能力学习、专人教育，主要学习《千字文》、《小学》、《诗经》、《易经》、《史记》等。书堂既是私学也是官学的初等教育机构。书院始于1543年丰基郡守周世鹏建立的白云洞书院。之后，在李滉的努力下，白云书院得到国家的认可与支持，在朝鲜各地迅速发展起来。书院以程朱理学和其它儒家经典为教学内容，「尊从名儒功臣，明伦扬道，讲学专研」。书院培养不少朝鲜名儒，不过在朝鲜王朝后期，一度成为党争寄居地。特殊教育有宗学和经筵。宗学是世宗时期为贵族子弟设立的传授经典、巫术、道德等贵族应该遵守的法道。经筵是大臣给君主授课的制度，主要由弘文馆员负责。

1443年朝鲜王朝世宗大王组织一批学者创造适合标记韩语语音的文字体系--韩字。这些文字当时被称作「训民正音」，意为「教老百姓以正确的字音」。虽然韩文在发明后的初期，受到两班贵族这一特权阶层的抵制，但随著民族文字的推广，教育在庶民和妇女中得以展开。。

文学

朝鲜王朝是文学创作的繁荣时期。训民正音的发明为国语文学开启新的起点。高丽王朝末期出现的时调从最初的士大夫阶层扩展到社会的各个阶层，并发展出「平时调」、「辞说时调」、「于时调」多种形式。与此同时，歌辞作为「长歌」形式也成为与时调并行发展的国语诗歌体裁，朝鲜王朝后期还出现形式更为灵活的「杂歌」。与此同时，汉文诗歌的创作也蓬勃发展。1918年文士张志渊编纂的朝鲜历代文人的汉诗集《大东诗选》中，朝鲜王朝时期的作品就占到全书12卷中的11卷。此外，乐府诗的创作也得到空前的发展，并形成自成一派的「海东乐府」体，使朝鲜诗歌创作出现多元化的发展局面。

散文呈现出多样化的发展态势。高丽后期出现的稗说体散文在朝鲜王朝前半期得到很大的发展，为后世小说的产生起到积极的意义。纪行散文主要有金净的《济州风土录》，丁时翰的《山中日记》，申叔舟的《海东诸国纪》，洪大容的《湛轩燕记》、朴趾源的《热河日记》，以及崔溥的《漂海录》等。16世纪末至17世纪中期，由于壬辰倭乱和女真的两次入侵，一批反省历史，反映时代问题的纪实散文应运而生，主要有柳成龙的《惩毖录》，李舜臣的《乱中日记》，石之珩的《南汉解围录》，金尚宪的《南汉纪略》等。训民正音的发明为女性创作文学作品提供便捷的工具。朝鲜王朝时期出现一些宫廷女性创作的国语散文。其中《癸丑日记》、《仁显王后传》和《闲中录》被称为朝鲜宫廷文学三大散文代表作。

小说作为新的文学样式开始兴起。金时习的《金鳌新话》上承《新罗殊异传》中《崔致远传》的传奇文学传统，下启金万重《九云梦》的浪漫主义小说的先河，在朝鲜小说史上有著特殊地位与价值。许筠的《洪吉童传》是出现较早的文人国语小说，也是朝鲜文学史上首部反映农民起义以及反映社会改革理想的小说。中世纪，朝鲜长篇小说在国语小说家金万重的带动下发展到成熟阶段，其代表作有长篇小说《谢氏南征记》和《九云梦》。受《九云梦》影响，朝鲜文坛之后出现许多以「梦字类」的小说，比如李廷桌的《玉麟梦》，南永鲁的《玉楼梦》等。壬辰倭乱和丙子胡乱时期，朝鲜出现了以《壬辰录》、《朴氏夫人传》和《林庆业传》等抵抗外族侵略的爱国主义小说。18世纪中期以后，讲唱脚本小说开始在兴起，出现了被誉为「朝鲜三大古典小说」的《春香传》、《沈清传》和《兴夫传》。

哲学

高丽末年传入的儒学在朝鲜王朝得到推崇，成为治国理政的思想。16世纪后半期，朝鲜性理学发展到巅峰，出现了以退溪李滉为代表的主理派和以栗谷李珥为代表的主气派。16世纪末和17世纪初壬辰倭乱和丙子胡乱后，朝鲜文人对程朱理学的清谈空论进行了反省，开始研究强国济民的「有用之学」。「学以致用、经世致用、利用厚生、实事求是」的实学思想，发展成为朝鲜儒学的顶峰。朝鲜实学理论成型于柳馨远。在其《》中，柳馨远提出了政治、经济等方面的改革和实施方案。他将田制看做万事之本，提出「均人以田，计田出兵，有田者必有役，有役者必有田」的均田制。他还对科举制度的弊端提出批评，提出任官授职应该依据能力，不分贵贱，并主张废除奴婢制度。

18世纪前半期，以李瀷为代表的「经世学派」继承了许多磻溪社会改革观点，并把实学研究广泛地扩大到天文、地理、农学、历史、军事、哲学、文学等领域。经世学派受西学影响的成分很多，崇尚西方科技，但对天主教的宗教信仰持怀疑态度。18世纪后半期，以洪大容、朴趾源、朴齐家为代表的「北学派」对朝鲜崇明排清的小中华思想进行了批评，提出「华夷一也」的新思想，主张学习清朝和西方先进文化技术。北学派的利用厚生实学继承了许多经世学派的改革观点，但与以土地制度改革为中心的经世学派不同，北学派的改革思想是以货币流通、商品贸易、技术改革、对外开放为核心，具有一定程度的近代文明性质。18世纪末到19世纪的朝鲜实学代表人物有丁若镛、金正喜、崔汉绮等。丁若镛是朝鲜实学思想的集大成者。他的茶山实学纵向继承了经世学派的实学传统，横向吸收了明清实学和朝鲜北学派，以及西学。朴齐家的弟子金正喜在继承利用厚生的北学派思想的基础上，吸收借鉴了中国清朝的考据学，确立了朝鲜考据派的实事求是实学。

艺术

朝鲜的绘画、诗歌、音乐、舞蹈也非常兴盛。朝鲜王朝宫廷音乐机构创作朝会雅乐、会礼雅乐、祭礼雅乐，以及《定大业》、《保太平》、《发祥》、《凤来仪》等朝乐大曲，以及《凤凰吟》、《满殿春》、《与民乐》等曲目。此外，在著名的高丽青瓷的基础上，朝鲜王朝时期还开发出独具特色的朝鲜白瓷。朝鲜在螺钿、漆器、金属、玉石、竹工、木工、牙角、刺绣、砂器等工艺方面也留下很多具有独特色彩的宝贵遗产。

盘索里

盘索里是朝鲜王朝时期发源于全罗道的一种朝鲜传统曲艺形式。盘索里表演时一人坐以击鼓，一人立以说唱。盘索里以唱为主，说为辅，说唱结合。歌者演唱时一人多角，甚至要模仿天地间的各种声音。盘索里有东便制、西便制和中高制三个流派。

18世纪中叶，盘索里在朝鲜半岛南部已经广为流传，并在朝鲜宫廷演出。18世纪末期，盘索里已经发展成为整个朝鲜半岛富有独特民族风味的说唱艺术。19世纪上半叶，盘索里开始进入了名唱时代，出现了权三得、宋兴禄、廉季达、牟兴甲、申万叶等「前期八名唱」，19世纪上半叶又出现了朴裕全、金世宗、李捺致等「后期八名唱」。19世纪末和20世纪初，盘索里进入以宋晚载、李东伯、刘性俊等人为代表的「五名唱时代」。20世纪初，盘索里与西洋舞台剧相结合的唱剧在朝鲜半岛出现。

绘画

朝鲜王朝设有专门掌管绘画的机构「」，通过考试在全国选拔画家。朝鲜王朝早期最具代表性的画家是安坚，主要代表作是《》。16世纪，朝鲜出现了、申师任堂、等一批擅长画花、鸟等动植物的画家。

进入17世纪后，随著实学的兴起，出现了、风俗画等现实主义的画风。郑敾是真景山水画的代表性画家。他的代表作《》通过垂直线皴法描绘出其游览的金刚山，显示出与中国画截然不同的朝鲜风格。以现实生活为主题的风俗画在18世纪达到顶峰，出现了金弘道、金得臣、申润福三大风俗画家。大多数风俗画以奴婢、农夫、手工业工匠、妓生等社会底层人物为主角。与此同时，朝鲜画坛还出现了另一种崇尚文人书卷气的复古极端，代表性人物有姜世晃、、朝鲜正祖、金正喜、张承业等。

陶瓷

高丽王朝末期，由于战乱高丽官窑遭到很大的破坏。流散到全国各地的瓷匠，开始按各自的偏好在各地小规模建窑制瓷。传统镶嵌青瓷工艺在不断创新的过程中逐渐演变成为更趋实用化的粉青沙器。粉青沙器是在与高丽青瓷相同或更灰黑色的胎面上浸渍或涂刷一层化妆土，然后进行各种风格的装饰，主要有镶嵌、印花、剔花、刻花、铁锈花、刷制等技法。世宗时期，粉青沙器发展达到高潮。16世纪40年代，朝鲜白瓷开始取代粉青沙器成为朝鲜陶瓷的主流。

世宗时期，朝鲜已经能够烧制出质量上乘的宫廷御用白瓷。15世纪后半叶朝鲜在京畿道广州设置官窑后，白瓷开始批量生产。世祖十三年左右，广州官窑成功烧制出青花瓷。由于青花料价格昂贵，青花瓷被列为禁售、禁用的奢侈品。17世纪由于后金的入侵，青花料无论是从中国进口还是本土开采都变得非常艰难。用氧化铁代替青花料为颜料的铁画白瓷，在崇尚节俭的风气之下，逐渐替代了青花瓷。17世纪末至18世纪上半叶的朝鲜白瓷洁白度达到最高，被称为「雪白瓷」。18世纪中叶的正祖时期，朝鲜本土的青花料被大量发现，青花白的产量开始增加。不过，青花白瓷在青花料的使用上非常淡雅、节约，纹饰方面也更具朝鲜风格。英祖二十八年（1752），朝鲜将官窑固定在广州分院里。原本贵族化的白瓷开始被大众化地批量生产。青花白瓷也随著青花料供应的增加而产量提高。朝鲜白瓷在这一时期瓷土纯白，胎质缜密，釉色变青，被称为「分院器」。这一时期，朝鲜还成功烧出颇具特色的青花、釉里褐和釉里红并用的釉里三色。

宗教

朝鲜王朝立国后除了世祖和燕山君等几位国王在位时外，历代国王通常采取「崇儒废佛」的政策，有时在国内拆毁佛教寺院。即使是崇佛的燕山君，他在朝时亦受到大臣的废佛压力。在废佛时，寺院的土地予以没收，并对僧侣徵收重税。与此同时，高丽时期僧院的饮茶传统也被禁止，茶道从此在朝鲜失传，民间则以麦茶作为替代饮料。

在正祖时期，天主教开始传入朝鲜王朝。正祖八年（1784年），朝鲜使臣李承薰在中国燕京天主教南堂领洗为天主教徒，教名伯多禄。他回国之后开始秘密传教活动。1791年12月23日，周文谟教士历尽艰辛，潜入朝鲜传教。朝鲜政府将天主教视为邪教，在得知有中国传教士潜入之后，加紧不断逮捕处决教徒。为了保护广大朝鲜教徒的安全，周文谟向朝鲜政府自首，于1801年4月19日在汉城被处决，史称「辛酉邪狱」。众多教徒和进步思想家如李承薰、丁若镛等人被处刑和流放。朴趾源、朴齐家等与天主教无直接关联的北学论者也被降职、革职。直到19世纪末开国时为止，朝鲜的统治者一直对天主教采取打击和压迫的政策。

随著西学东进，与其相对的朝鲜本土宗教东学兴起。东学由庆州人崔济愚于1860年创建。东学虽然有反洋教、反侵略的性质，但倡导与西学相似的反封建，人人平等的思想。东学批判儒家正统 「天命」的形而上学，提出「人乃天」，主张「后天开辟，地上天国」。因此东学在创建之初即遭到受儒学思想影响的朝鲜封建统治者的镇压，被视为与天主教一样的异端邪教。东学第一、二任教主都被封建统治者极刑处死殉教。1892年，朝鲜政府解禁天主教后，对东学的封禁却有增无减。「万民平等，后天开辟」的东学思想在1894年引发了东学农民革命。1905年东学第三任教主孙秉熙将东学教改组为近代宗教天道教。

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