Rise of the Tuoba Xianbei

The Jin Dynasty had developed an alliance with the Tuoba against the Xiongnu state Han Zhao. In 315 the Tuoba chief was granted the title of the Prince of Dai. After the death of its founding prince, Tuoba Yilu, however, the Dai state stagnated and largely remained a partial ally and a partial tributary state to Later Zhao and Former Yan, finally falling to Former Qin in 376.

After Former Qin's emperor Fu Jiān was defeated by Jin forces at the Battle of Fei River in his failed bid to unify China, the Former Qin state began to break apart. By 386, Tuoba Gui, the son (or grandson) of Tuoba Shiyijian (the last Prince of Dai), reasserted Tuoba independence initially as the Prince of Dai. Later he changed his title to the Prince of Wei, and his state was therefore known as Northern Wei. In 391, Tuoba Gui defeated the Rouran tribes and killed their chief, Heduohan, forcing the Rouran to flee west.

Initially Northern Wei was a vassal of Later Yan, but by 395 had rebelled and defeated the Yan at the Battle of Canhebei. By 398 the Wei had conquered most of Later Yan territory north of the Yellow River. In 399, Tuoba Gui declared himself Emperor Daowu, and that title was used by Northern Wei's rulers for the rest of the empire's history. That same year he defeated the Tiele tribes near the Gobi desert.

Unification of Northern China

In 426, Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei made the Xiongnu-ruled Kingdom of Xia his target. He sent his generals to attack Puban (modern Yuncheng) and Shancheng (modern Sanmenxia), while he himself laid siege to the Xia's heavily fortified capital of Tongwancheng. Tongwancheng fell in 427, forcing the Xia emperor Helian Chang to flee westward. Nevertheless, he was captured in 428 and his brother, Helian Ding, took over as the emperor of Xia.

In fall 430, while Helian Ding was engaging the Western Qin, the Northern Wei made a surprise attack on the new Xia capital Pingliang and conquered the kingdom.

In summer 432, Emperor Taiwu, with Xia destroyed, began to attack Northern Yan and its capital Helong (和龍, in modern Jinzhou, Liaoning) under siege. He chose to withdraw at the start of winter and would launch yearly attacks against Northern Yan to weaken it gradually over the next few years. In 436 the Yan emperor Feng Hong had to evacuate his state and fled to Goguryeo, ending Northern Yan.

In 439, the Northern Wei launched a major attack on Northern Liang, capturing its capital Guzang (modern Wuwei, Gansu) . By 441, the entirety of Northern Liang was under the Wei. Thus, Northern China was unified under Emperor Taiwu, ending the Sixteen Kingdoms era and beginning the Southern and Northern Dynasties era.

Wars with the Southern Dynasties

War with Liu Song

War between Northern Wei and Han-ruled Liu Song dynasty broke out while the former had not yet unified northern China. Emperor Wu of Liu Song while still a Jin dynasty general, had conquered both Southern Yan in 410 and Later Qin in 417, pushing Jin frontiers further north into Wei territories. He then usurped the Jin throne and created the Song dynasty. After hearing the death of the Song emperor Wu in 422, Wei's emperor Mingyuan broke off relations with Song and sent troops to invade its southern neighbor. His plan is to seize three major cities south of the Yellow River: Luoyang, Hulao, and Huatai. Sizhou (司州, central Henan) and Yanzhou (兗州, modern western Shandong) and most cities in Song's Qing Province (青州, modern central and eastern Shandong) fell to the Wei army. The Liu Song general Tan Daoji commanded an army to try to save those cities and were able to hold Dongyang (東陽, in modern Qingzhou, Shandong),the capital of Qingzhou province. Northern Wei troops were eventually forced to withdraw after food supplies ran out. Wei forces also stalled in their siege of Hulao, defended by the capable Liu Song general Mao Dezu (毛德祖), but were meanwhile able to capture Luoyang and Xuchang (許昌, in modern Xuchang, Henan) in spring 423, cutting off the path of any Liu Song relief force for Hulao. In summer 423, Hulao fell. The campaign then ceased, with Northern Wei now in control of much of modern Henan and western Shandong.

Emperor Wen of Liu Song continued the northern campaigns of his father. In 430, under the able general Dao Yanzhi, Liu Song recovered the four cities of Luoyang, Hulao, Huatai and Qiao'ao south of the Yellow River. However, the emperor's unwillingness to advance past this line caused the destruction of the empire's ally, Xia, by the Wei. The emperor was to repeat this mistake as several northern states such as Northern Yan who had offered to ally with Liu Song against Wei were declined, eventually leading to Wei's unification of the North in 439.

In 450, Emperor Wen attempted to destroy the Northern Wei by himself and launched a massive invasion. Although initially successful, the campaign turned into a disaster. The Wei lured the Liu Song to cross the Yellow River, and then flanked them, destroying the Eastern army.

As the Liu Song armies retreated, Emperor Taiwu of Wei ordered his troop to move south. The provinces south of the Yellow River were devastated by the Wei army. Only Huatai, a fortified city, held out against the Wei. Wei troops retreated in January 451, however, the economic damage to the Song was immense. Emperor Wen made another attempt to conquer Northern Wei in 452, but failed again. On returning to the capital, he was assassinated by the heir apparent, Liu Shao.

In 466, Liu Zixun waged an unsuccessful civil war against the Emperor Ming of Liu Song. The governors of Xu Province (徐州) and Yan Province (兗州, modern western Shandong), who earlier pleaded allegiance to Liu Zixun, in fear of reprisal from the Liu Song Emperor, surrendered these territories to rival Northern Wei. Northern Wei forces quickly took up defense position against the attacking forces sent by Emperor Ming. With Liu Song forces unable to siege Pengcheng effectively, they were forced to withdraw in spring 467, making these populous provinces lost to the Northern Wei.

War with Southern Qi

In 479, Xiao Daocheng usurped the throne of Liu Song and became emperor of the new Southern Qi dynasty. Upon hearing the news, the Northern Wei emperor prepared to invade under the pretext of installing Liu Chang, son of Emperor Wen of Liu Song who had been in exile in Wei since 465 AD.

Wei troops began to attack Shouyang but could not take the city. The Southern Qi began to fortified their capital, Jiankang in order to prevent further Wei raids.

Multiple sieges and skirmishes were fought until 481 but the war was without any major campaign. A peace treaty was signed in 490 with the Emperor Wu.

War with Liang

In 502, the Southern Qi general Xiao Yan toppled the Emperor Xiao Baojuan after waging a three years civil war against him. Xiao Yan enthroned in Jiankang to become the Emperor Wu of Liang dynasty.

As soon as 503 AD, the Northern Wei was hoping to restore the Southern Qi throne. Their plan was install Xiao Baoyin, a Southern Qi prince to become Emperor of the puppet state. A southern expedition was led by Prince Yuan Cheng of Wei and Chen Bozhi, a former Qi general. Until spring 505, Xinyang and Hanzhong were fallen to the Northern Wei.

In 505, Emperor Wu began the Liang offensive. A strong army was quickly amassed under the general Wei Rui and caught the Wei by surprise, calling it the strongest army they have seen from the Southern Dynasties in a hundred years. In spring 506, Wei Rui was able to capture Hefei. In fall 506, Wei Rui attacked the Northern Wei army stationed at Luokou for nearly a year without advancing. However, when Wei army gathered, Xiao Hong Prince of Linchuan, the Liang commander and younger brother of Emperor Wu, escaped in fear, causing his army to collapse without a battle. Northern Wei forces next attacked the fortress of Zhongli (鍾離, in modern Bengbu), However, they were defeated by a Liang army commanded by Wei Rui and Cao Jingzong, effectively ending the war. After the Battle of Zhongli, there would continue to be border battles from time to time, but no large scale war for years.

In 524, while Northern Wei is plagued by agrarian rebellions to the north and west, Emperor Wu launched a number of attacks on Wei's southern territory. Liang forces largely met little resistance. In spring 525, the Northern Wei general Yuan Faseng (元法僧) surrendered the key city of Pengcheng (彭城, in modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu) to Liang. However, in summer 525, Emperor Wu's son Prince Xiao Zong (蕭綜), grew suspicions that he was actually the son of Southern Qi's emperor Xiao Baojuan (because his mother Consort Wu was formerly Xiao Baojuan's concubine and had given birth to him only seven months after she became Emperor Wu's concubine), surrendered Pengcheng to Northern Wei, ending Liang's advances in the northeast, although in summer 526, Shouyang fell to Liang troops after Emperor Wu successfully reemployed the damming strategy. For the next several years, Liang continued to make minor gains on the borders with Northern Wei.

In 528, after a coup in Northern Wei, with the warlord Erzhu Rong overthrowing Empress Dowager Hu, a number of Northern Wei officials, including Yuan Yue, Yuan Yu, and Yuan Hao fled and surrendered territories they controlled to Liang. In winter 528, Emperor Wu created Yuan Hao the Prince of Wei—intending to have him lay claim to the Northern Wei throne and, if successful, become a Liang vassal. He commissioned his general Chen Qingzhi (陳慶之) with an army to escort Yuan Hao back to Northern Wei. Despite the small size of Chen's army, he won battle after battle, and in spring 529, after Chen captured Suiyang (modern Shangqiu). Yuan Hao, with Emperor Wu's approve, proclaimed himself the emperor of Northern Wei. In summer 529, troops under Erzhu unable to stand up to Chen Qingzhi, forcing Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei to flee the capital Luoyang. After capturing Luoyang, Yuan Hao secretly wanted to rebel against Liang: when Chen Qingzhi requested Emperor Wu to send reinforcements, Yuan Hao sent Emperor Wu a submission advising against it, and Emperor Wu, believing Yuan Hao, did not send additional troops. Soon, Erzhu and Emperor Xiaozhuang counterattacked, and Luoyang fell. Yuan Hao fled and was killed in flight, and Chen's own army was destroyed, although Chen himself was able to flee back to Liang.

In 530, Emperor Wu made another attempt to establish a vassal regime in Northern Wei by creating Yuan Yue the Prince of Wei, and commissioning Yuan Yue's uncle Fan Zun (范遵) with an army to escort Yuan Yue back to Northern Wei. Yuan Yue made some advances, particularly in light of the disturbance precipitated soon thereafter when Emperor Xiaozhuang ambushed and killed Erzhu Rong and was in turn overthrown by Erzhu Rong's nephew Erzhu Zhao and cousin Erzhu Shilong. However, Yuan Yue realized that the Erzhus then became firmly in control of Luoyang and that he would be unable to defeat them, and so returned to Liang in winter 530.

In 532, with Northern Wei again in civil war after the general Gao Huan rose against the Erzhus, Emperor Wu against sent an army to escort Yuan Yue back to Northern Wei, and subsequently, Gao Huan welcomed Yuan Yue, but then decided against making Yuan Yue emperor. Subsequently, Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei, whom Gao made emperor, had Yuan Yue executed.

With Northern Wei divided into Eastern Wei and Western Wei in light of Emperor Xiaowu's flight, Emperor Wu initially continued to send his forces to make minor territorial gains on the borders, against both Eastern Wei and Western Wei, for several years.

Policies

Early in Northern Wei history, the state inherited a number of traditions from its initial history as a Xianbei tribe, and some of the more unusual ones, from a traditional Chinese standpoint:

• The officials did not receive salaries, but were expected to requisition the necessities of their lives directly from the people they governed. As Northern Wei Empire's history progressed, this appeared to be a major contributing factor leading to corruption among officials. Not until the 2nd century of the empire's existence did the state begin to distribute salaries to its officials.

• Empresses were not named according to imperial favors or nobility of birth, but required that the candidates submit themselves to a ceremony where they had to personally forge golden statues, as a way of discerning divine favor. Only an imperial consort who was successful in forging a golden statue could become the empress.

• All men, regardless of ethnicity, were ordered to tie their hair into a single braid that would then be rolled and placed on top of the head, and then have a cap worn over the head.

• When a crown prince is named, his mother, if still alive, must be forced to commit suicide. (Some historians do not believe this to be a Tuoba traditional custom, but believed it to be a tradition instituted by the founding emperor Emperor Daowu based on Emperor Wu of Han's execution of his favorite concubine Consort Zhao, the mother of his youngest son Liu Fuling (the eventual Emperor Zhao), before naming Prince Fuling crown prince.)

• As a result, because emperors would not have mothers, they often honored their wet nurses with the honorific title, "Nurse Empress Dowager" (保太后, bǎo tài hòu).

As Sinicization of the Northern Wei state progressed, these customs and traditions were gradually abandoned.

Administrative organization

• Five families formed a neighborhood (lin)

• Five lin formed a village (li)

• Five li formed a commune (tang)

At each of these levels, leaders that were associated with the central government were appointed. In order for the state to reclaim dry, barren areas of land, the state further developed this system by dividing up the land according to the number of men of an age to cultivate it. The Sui and Tang Dynasties later resurrected this system in the 7th century.

Deportations

During the reign of Emperor Daowu (386–409), the total number of deported people from the regions east of Taihangshan (the former Later Yan territory) to Datong was estimated to be around 460,000. Deportations typically took place once a new piece of territory had been conquered.

Sinicization

As the Northern Wei state grew, the emperors' desire for Han Chinese institutions and advisors grew. Cui Hao (381–450), an advisor at the courts in Datong played a great part in this process. He introduced Han Chinese administrative methods and penal codes in the Northern Wei state, as well as creating a Taoist theocracy that lasted until 450. The attraction of Han Chinese products, the royal court's taste for luxury, the prestige of Chinese culture at the time, and Taoism were all factors in the growing Chinese influence in the Northern Wei state. Chinese influence accelerated during the capital's move to Luoyang in 494 and Emperor Xiaowen continued this by establishing a policy of systematic sinicization that was continued by his successors. Xianbei traditions were largely abandoned. The royal family took the sinicization a step further by changing their family name to Yuan. Marriages to Chinese families were encouraged. With this, Buddhist temples started appearing everywhere, displacing Taoism as the state religion. The temples were often created to appear extremely lavish and extravagant on the outside of the temples. Also from 460 onwards the emperors started erecting huge statues of the Buddha carved near their capital Pingcheng which declared the emperors as the representatives of the Buddha and the legitimate rulers of China.

The Northern Wei started to arrange for Han Chinese elites to marry daughters of the Xianbei Tuoba royal family in the 480s. More than fifty percent of Tuoba Xianbei princesses of the Northern Wei were married to southern Han Chinese men from the imperial families and aristocrats from southern China of the Southern dynasties who defected and moved north to join the Northern Wei. Some Han Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei. Several daughters of the Xianbei Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei were married to Han Chinese elites, the Liu Song royal Liu Hui 劉輝), married Princess Lanling (蘭陵公主) of the Northern Wei, Princess Huayang (華陽公主) to Sima Fei (司馬朏), a descendant of Jin dynasty (266–420) royalty, Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei's sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to the Liang dynasty ruler Emperor Wu of Liang's son Xiao Zong 蕭綜.

When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended Northern Wei received the Han Chinese Jin prince Sima Chuzhi (司馬楚之) as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to Sima Jinlong (司馬金龍). Northern Liang Xiongnu King Juqu Mujian's daughter married Sima Jinlong.

The Northern Wei's Eight Noble Xianbei surnames (八大贵族) were the Buliugu (步六孤), Helai (賀賴), Dugu (獨孤), Helou (賀樓), Huniu (忽忸), Qiumu (丘穆), Gexi (紇奚), and Yuchi (尉遲). They adopted Chinese last names.

Kongzi was honoured in sacrifices as was Earth and Heaven by the northern dynasties of non-Han origin. Kongzi was honored by the Murong Wei Former Yan Xianbei leader. Kongzi was honored by the Di ruler Fu Jian (337–385). Kongzi was honored in sacrifices by the Northern Wei Xianbei dynasty. Kongzi was honored by Yuoba Si, the Mingyuan emperor. Han dynasty Emperors, Shang dynasty ruler Bigan, Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun were honored by Yuoba Si, the Mingyuan Emperor. Kongzi was honored extensively by Tuoba Hong, the Xiaowen Emperor.

A fief of 100 households and the rank of (崇聖侯) Marquis who worships the sage was bestowed upon a Confucius descendant, Yan Hui's lineage had 2 of its scions and Confucius's lineage had 4 of its scions who had ranks bestowed on them in Shandong in 495 and a fief of ten households and rank of (崇聖大夫) Grandee who venerates the sage was bestowed on Kong Sheng (孔乘) who was Confucius's scion in the 28th generation in 472 by Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei.

An anti Buddhist plan was concocted by the Celestial Masters under Kou Qianzhi along with Cui Hao under the Taiwu Emperor. The Celestial Masters of the north urged the persecution of Buddhists under the Taiwu Emperor in the Northern Wei, attacking Buddhism and the Buddha as wicked and as anti-stability and anti-family. Anti Buddhism was the position of Kou Qianzhi. There was no ban on the Celestial Masters despite the nonfullfilment of Cui Hao and Kou Qianzhi's agenda in their anti-Buddhist campaign.

Cui Zhen's wife Han Farong was buried in a Datong located grave.

Building the Great Wall

To resist the threats poised by the Rourans, Northern Wei emperors started to embark on building its own Great Wall, the first since the Han dynasty. In 423, a defence line over 2,000 li long was built ; its path roughly followed the old Zhao wall from Chicheng County in Hebei Province to Wuyuan County, Inner Mongolia. In 446, 100,000 men were put to work building an inner wall from Yanqing, passing south of the Wei capital Pingcheng, and ending up near Pingguan on the eastern bank of the Yellow River. The two walls of Northern Wei formed the basis of the double-layered Xuanfu–Datong wall system that protected Beijing a thousand years later during the Ming dynasty.

Disunity and breakup

The heavy Chinese influence that had come into the Northern Wei state which went on throughout the 5th century had mainly affected the courts and the upper ranks of the Tuoba aristocracy. Armies that guarded the Northern frontiers of the empire and the Xianbei people who were less sinicized began showing feelings of hostility towards the aristocratic court and the upper ranks of civil society. Early in Northern Wei history, defense on the northern border against Rouran was heavily emphasized, and military duty on the northern border was considered honored service that was given high recognition. After all, throughout the founding and the early stages of the Northern Wei, it was the strength of the sword and bow that carved out the empire and kept it. But once Emperor Xiaowen's sinicization campaign began in earnest, military service, particularly on the northern border, was no longer considered an honorable status, and traditional Xianbei warrior families on the northern border were disrespected and disallowed many of their previous privileges; these warrior families who had originally been held as the upper-class now found themselves considered a lower-class on the social hierarchy.

Six Frontier Towns rebellions

Rebellions broke out on six major garrison-towns on the northern border and spread like wildfire throughout the north. These rebellions lasted for a decade.

In 523, nomadic Rouran tribes suffered a major famine due to successive years of drought. In April, the Rouran Khan sent troops to plunder Huaihuang to solve the famine. People of the town rose up and killed the town's commander. Rebellion soon broke out against the Luoyang court across the region. In Woye, Poliuhan Baling (破六韓拔陵) became a rebel leader. His army quickly took Woye and laid siege to Wuchuan and Huaishuo.

Elsewhere in Qinzhou (Gansu), Qiang ethnic leaders such as Mozhe Dati (莫折大提) also rose up against the government. In Gaoping (present-day Guyuan), Hu Chen (胡琛) and the Xiongnu rebelled and titled himself the King of Gaoping. In Hebei, Ge Rong rebelled, proclaiming himself the Emperor of Qi.

The Poliuhan Baling rebellion was defeated in 525. However, other anti-Sinicization rebellions had spread to other regions such as Hebei and Guanzhong and only be pacified as late as 530.

Rise of Erzhu Rong and Heyin Massacre

Exacerbating the situation, Empress Dowager Hu poisoned her own son Emperor Xiaoming in 528 after Emperor Xiaoming showed disapproval of her handling of the affairs as he started coming of age and got ready to reclaim the power that had been held by the empress in his name when he inherited the throne as an infant, giving the Empress Dowager rule of the country for more than a decade. Upon hearing the news of the 18-year-old emperor's death, the general Erzhu Rong, who had already mobilised on secret orders of the emperor to support him in his struggle with the Empress Dowager Hu, turned toward Luoyang. Announcing that he was installing a new emperor chosen by an ancient Xianbei method of casting bronze figures, Erzhu Rong summoned the officials of the city to meet their new emperor. However, on their arrival, he told them they were to be punished for their misgovernment and butchered them, throwing the Empress Hu and her candidate (another puppet child emperor Yuan Zhao) into the Yellow River. Reports estimate 2,000 courtiers were killed in this Heyin massacre on the 13th day of the second month of 528. Erzhu Rong claimed Yuan Ziyou grandson of Emperor Xianwen the new emperor as Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei.

In 529, Liang general Chen Qingzhi sacked Luoyang, forced Emperor Xiaozhuang to flee and claimed Yuan Hao another grandson of Emperor Xianwen emperor, before his final defeat by Erzhu Rong.

Civil war and the two generals

The Erzhu clan dominated the imperial court thereafter, the emperor held power in name only and most decisions actually went through the Erzhus. The emperor did stop most of the rebellions, largely reunifying the Northern Wei state. However, Emperor Xiaozhuang, not wishing to remain a puppet emperor and highly wary of the Erzhu clan's widespread power and questionable loyalty and intentions towards the throne (after all, this man had ordered a massacre of the court and put to death a previous emperor and empress before), killed Erzhu Rong in 530 in an ambush at the palace, which led to a resumption of civil war, initially between Erzhu's clan and Emperor Xiaozhuang, and then, after their victory over Emperor Xiaozhuang in 531, between the Erzhu clan and those who resisted their rule. In the aftermath of these wars, two generals set in motion the actions that would result in the splitting of the Northern Wei into the Eastern and Western Wei.

General Gao Huan was originally from the northern frontier, one of many soldiers who had surrendered to Erzhu, who eventually became one of the Erzhu clan's top lieutenants. But later, Gao Huan gathered his own men from both Han and non-Han troops, to turn against the Erzhu clan, entering and taking the capital Luoyang in 532. Confident in his success, he deposed Emperor Jiemin of Northern Wei the emperor claimed by Erzhu's clan and Yuan Lang the emperor claimed by Gao himself for too distant, set up a nominee emperor Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei on the Luoyang throne and continued his campaigns abroad. The emperor, however, together with the military head of Luoyang, Husi Chun, began to plot against Gao Huan. Gao Huan succeeded, however, in keeping control of Luoyang, and the unfaithful ruler and a handful of followers fled west, to the region ruled by the powerful warlord Yuwen Tai. Gao Huan then announced his decision to move the Luoyang court to his capital city of Ye. "Within three days of the decree, 400,000 families—perhaps 2,000,000 people—had to leave their homes in and around the capital to move to Yeh as autumn turned to winter." There now existed two rival claimants to the Northern Wei throne, leading to the state's division in 534–535 into the Eastern Wei and Western Wei.

Fall

Neither Eastern Wei nor Western Wei was long-lived. In 550, Gao Huan's son Gao Yang forced Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei to yield the throne to him, ending Eastern Wei and establishing the Northern Qi. Similarly, in 557, Yuwen Tai's nephew Yuwen Hu forced Emperor Gong of Western Wei to yield the throne to Yuwen Tai's son Yuwen Jue, ending the Western Wei and establishing the Northern Zhou. In 581, the Northern Zhou official Yang Jian had the emperor to yield the throne to him, establishing the Sui Dynasty, finally extinguishing the imperial rule of the Xianbei.

Culture and legacy

The Northern Wei dynasty was the most long-lived and most powerful of the northern dynasties prior to the reunification of China by the Sui dynasty. Northern Wei art came under influence of Indian and Central Asian traditions through the mean of trade routes. Most importantly for Chinese art history, the Wei rulers converted to Buddhism and became great patrons of Buddhist arts. https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/exhibit/nwei/essay.html

Many of the most important heritages of China, such as the Yungang Grottoes, the Longmen Caves, the Shaolin Monastery, the Songyue Pagoda, were built by the Northern Wei. Important books such as Qimin Yaoshu and Commentary on the Water Classic, a monumental work on China's geography, was written during the era.

The Legend of Hua Mulan is originated from the Northern Wei era, in which Mulan disguised as a man, takes her aged father's place in the Wei army to defend China from Rouran invaders.

Sovereigns of the Northern Wei dynasty

Image:Buddhist Stela Northern Wei period.jpg| A Buddhist stela from the Northern Wei period, build in the early 6th century.

File:Cernuschi Museum 20060812 128.jpg| Mounted warrior of the Northern Wei Dynasty from the collections of the Musée Cernuschi.

File:Officials, China, Northern Wei dynasty, c. 500-534, earthenware - Royal Ontario Museum - DSC04084.JPG| Figurines of court ladies, Royal Ontario Museum.

File:Male figure from a lacquer painting over wood, Northern Wei.jpg|Male figure wearing Hanfu robes, from a lacquerware painting over wood, Northern Wei period, 5th century AD

Image:Buddhist paintings Yungang.jpg|Northern Wei wall murals and painted figurines, Yungang Grottoes, 5th to 6th centuries.

歷史

北魏立國

在公元四世紀初，拓跋鮮卑在今山西北部和今內蒙古等地建立代國。376年被前秦所滅。淝水之戰後，前秦統治瓦解。386年，拓跋珪即代王位，重建代國。同年四月，改國號為魏。398年（天興元年）建都平城，次年稱帝。即為魏道武帝。

兼併華北

396年道武帝改元皇興，率40萬大軍征討後燕，一舉攻下中山、信度、鄴城，平定中原。經過明元帝時代的承平歲月，到北魏太武帝時，于427年攻破夏國首都統萬城，428年占領安定，逐走赫連夏後主赫連定。436年攻破和龍，滅亡北燕。太延五年（公元439年）吞併北涼。442年西涼殘餘勢力李寶投降北魏。443年仇池楊保熾投降北魏。至此北魏完成了兼併華北地區和北方，這時華南地區和南方早已是劉宋，南北各自為政，形成互不隸屬的對峙之局。

佔領青齊

在統一華北以前，北魏就有多次與南朝政權在黃淮下游交手的經驗。顯祖獻文帝皇興三年（469），北魏上黨公、征南大將軍慕容白曜攻下南朝宋所屬的青州治所東陽城，至此以後，現今山東半島，又屬黃淮下游古稱青齊的地區（《尚書‧禹貢》稱「海岱之地」）就歸北魏所管，並被割劃為青州、齊州、濟州、光州等區。

改革

早在馮太后掌政時代，馮太后已推行了一系列措施建立國家規模，如在太和九年（485年）推行均田制，把之前因為戰亂而遺下的無主荒地按制度分給存活的農民，一部分可永久擁有，一部分則身死後交還公家。又施行租調制，農民按制度上數字，定期向朝廷納稅。

孝文帝親政後更在文化上開始修整，在風雨飄搖之中的背景下為了維持和鞏固政權，進行了許多大刀闊斧的改革，即後世之所謂孝文漢化，其舉措大略如下：

• 一、遷洛陽：孝文帝以舊都平城（今山西省大同市）為用武之地，非可文治，而洛邑為歷史名都，物富民豐，交通便利，便於經略海內，控制中原，魏太和十七年（493年），以南伐為名，進駐河洛，定為京師。遷都洛陽後，戎裝以外，官民皆著漢服。

• 二、改漢姓：《魏書‧官氏志》記載了一百一十八個胡人改姓的例子，如皇族拓跋氏改元姓、步六孤改陸姓、賀賴氏改賀姓、獨孤改姓劉。

• 三、斷胡語：凡三十歲以下官員一律使用漢語，如果仍用鮮卑語，即降爵黜官。

• 四、通婚姻：鼓勵與漢族世家通婚，並從己身開始迎娶漢族士族女子。

• 五、重教育：祀孔子，尊儒教，尋古書，設立太學、小學。

自此胡漢界線開始逐漸消弭，對當時和後世發展意義非凡。

北魏分裂

河陰之變

第八任皇帝魏宣武帝元恪立他的兒子元詡當太子時，沒有按舊制子貴母死處死太子的母親胡貴嬪，導致外戚及士族掌權。孝明帝元詡即位後，胡貴嬪為皇太后，後六鎮之亂爆發。胡黨毒死元詡，立元釗，大將爾朱榮趁勢討伐，殺死胡太后、元釗，立孝文帝侄長樂王元子攸為帝，在大殺宗室的河陰之變後掌控朝政。孝文帝侄元顥、孝文帝子元悅等宗室都因河陰之變而南下投靠梁朝。梁朝雍州刺史蕭綱趁機上表請求北伐，收複襄陽、新野，「拓地千里」。

529年，梁武帝派陳慶之攻陷洛陽，立元顥為帝。陳慶之目睹洛陽的衣冠、禮儀、人才不輸南朝，心生感慨。元顥御下無方失去人心，又急于脫離陳慶之掌控而請求梁武帝不再增援，不久為爾朱榮所敗被殺。

內戰

孝莊帝元子攸不能容忍爾朱榮跋扈，在爾朱榮回朝後設計剷除之，梁武帝亦于530年趁機派兵擁立元悅為帝。但不久後爾朱氏就立爾朱榮內侄長廣王元曄為帝，孝莊帝也被爾朱家族所殺害，元悅見狀亦放棄稱帝而南歸。爾朱氏覺得元曄世系疏遠，又廢元曄改立孝文帝侄元恭。

爾朱家族大將高歡倒戈，立轄區內的宗室勃海太守元朗為帝以號令天下，討伐爾朱家族，並取得勝利。532年，高歡以元恭為爾朱氏所立、元朗世系疏遠為由，皆廢黜，有意立元悅，元悅于是北返，但因德行有失，高歡沒有立他，而是立孝文帝孫平陽王元修為帝，是為孝武帝。元恭、元悅、元曄、元朗皆被孝武帝所殺。孝武帝不能容忍高歡掌握朝政，在534年投奔長安的宇文泰。

高歡寫信讓孝武帝迴鑾未果，于是另立孝文帝曾孫元善見為帝，建都鄴城（今河北臨漳），史稱「東魏」，稱孝武帝為「出帝」。北魏就此分裂。一年後宇文泰弒孝武帝，另立孝文帝孫南陽王元寶炬為帝，建都長安，史稱「西魏」。

政治制度

子貴母死制度

北魏的宮廷為了避免外戚幹政，實施殘酷的子貴母死制度，即後宮女性只要生下皇子就得被賜死，以避免母以子貴的情況發生。但幼子還是需要人照顧，因此就有所謂的保太后，即以太子的保姆在太子繼位後成為皇太后。北魏有三種皇太后，一種是皇帝的生母，另一種是皇帝的保姆，還有一種是未曾替前任皇帝生皇子因而存活的皇后。如北魏獻文帝乃由漢人女子李貴人所生，然李貴人在生下獻文帝以後即被賜死，由身為太后的馮氏所養大。獻文帝曾求當時當權的馮太后廢除舊法，但被拒絕。後來直到篤信佛教的北魏宣武帝，才終於取消子貴母死，但他卻導致北魏的外戚爭權，最終導致北魏滅亡及分裂。

北魏文成帝拓跋濬是北魏太武帝的孫子，其父拓跋晃沒有做過皇帝，文成帝也並非以儲君身份登基，故其生母鬱久閭氏未曾被賜死，在文成帝登基之初尚在人世，但不久後，身為在位皇帝之母的她也因「子貴母死」制度所累而死。

經濟發展

賦役制度

魏孝文帝改革之前，北魏的稅收由部落貢納、牧民的畜牧稅為以及一般農民的租調為主，其中農民的租調為最大收入。北魏規定租調稅收為「戶調帛二匹、絮二斤、絲一斤、粟二十石；又入帛一匹二丈，委之州庫，以供調外之費。」。不過這是個一般辦法，政府需要的時候可以增加徵收物品的種類和數量。租調是按戶收取的，戶的大小沒有限制，孝文帝改革之前，三五十家組成一戶的情形很普遍。除了這種一般性稅收外，政府經常因為戰爭而加開新稅，官吏因為沒有官俸，也常常以各種藉口徵稅，給百姓帶來很大的負擔。

徭役方面，兵役方面由鮮卑人擔任，因而兵役較輕。而力役的情況因為缺少史料，無法得知。只知道，為政府工作的工、雜役非常多。他們被編為隸戶、軍戶、營戶、府戶、綾羅戶、樂戶等等。

孝文帝改革後，為了給官僚機構提供俸祿，以減少官吏欺壓百姓。提高了稅率，魏孝文帝定每戶增調帛三匹、谷二斛九斗，充百官俸祿。又在太和九年（485年）實行均田制，辦法大致有四項：

• 十五歲以上的男丁和婦人均可授田，男丁授露田四十畝，婦人二十畝，授田視輪休需要加倍或再加倍。如果有牛一頭則授田三十畝，最多四頭牛，多出的不授田。老少病殘或者缺乏男丁的家庭十一歲以上和有病者均授予半夫之田。奴婢一樣按照男丁和婦人的標準授田。授田不准買賣，年老或身死還田，但七十以上授田者不必歸還。

• 男丁授桑田20畝。桑田不必還給國家，可傳給子孫，也可以可賣出多于20畝的部分，也可買桑田補足20畝。產麻地男子授麻田10畝，婦人50畝，年老及身死後還田。

• 多餘土地可以借給農民耕種，政府嚴格控制農民遷徙，只允許遷往空荒地區。

• 規定駐地長官在所在地給予公田，刺史十五頃，太守十頃，治中別駕八頃，縣令郡丞六頃，不許買賣。

政府在均田制的基礎上重新規定了稅收制度，一夫一妻應繳納的租調為：「其民調，一夫一婦帛一匹，粟二石。民年十五以上未娶者，四人出一夫一婦之調；奴任耕、婢任織者八口當未娶者四；耕牛二十頭當奴婢八。其麻布之鄉，一夫一婦布一匹，下至牛，以此為降。」

軍事

北魏兵民分開，兵用于打仗，民從事耕桑。而兵主要由鮮卑及其他少數民族組成，農業主要由漢人從事。兵民之分也就是胡漢之分，也是胡漢分治的體現。

而士兵裡面也分兩種，一種是鮮卑兵，另外一種是非鮮卑兵。

鮮卑兵由代北部落的鮮卑人組成，主要擔任北魏的禁旅和邊防六鎮的士兵。這種兵帶貴族性質，地位頗高，但在魏文帝漢化之後有所改變。

非鮮卑兵中，以高車兵最為重要，禁軍和六鎮邊兵都有高車人。此外還有部分少數民族和漢人軍隊。

文化、藝術和宗教

北魏經歷了遊牧部落聯盟而迅速轉移到國家的歷史，拓跋鮮卑人有自己的語言而沒有文字。北魏時期的主要宗教是佛教、道教和瑣羅亞斯德教，其中最重要的是佛教，僧尼的人數曾發展到二百多萬。北魏道教，主要是經過寇謙之改良的天師道。當時佛道兩家的鬥爭十分激烈，太武帝拓跋燾曾經大舉滅佛。瑣羅亞斯德教在中國稱為祆教或拜火教，主神被稱為「胡天」，主要在入華的粟特人當中傳播。孝文帝在平城（大同）開鑿了雲岡石窟。

北魏大部分時期，由於國家及私人贊助，佛教藝術十分興盛。雲崗佛教石窟約興建於西元四六〇年，由上千位工匠歷時約三十五年後完工，洞窟內有雕塑及與繪畫。之後，北魏孝文帝亦於龍門興建石窟。雲崗石窟的佛像屬較靜態的罽賓風格，龍門的造像形式則較流線飄逸，開始展現中國風格的影響。北魏的陪葬陶器亦受到佛教影響，強調「正面性」(frontality) 及對稱。

君主

藩王