Physical appearance

The historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms as well as other historical records described Liu Bei as a man seven chi and five cun tall (approximately 1.73 metres), with long arms, large ears, and almost no facial hair, .

Family background

According to the 3rd-century historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms, Liu Bei was born in Zhuo County, Zhuo Commandery (present-day Zhuozhou, Hebei). He was a descendant of Liu Sheng, who was the ninth son of Emperor Jing and the first King of Zhongshan in Han dynasty. However, Pei Songzhi's 5th-century commentary, based on the Dianlue (典略), said that Liu Bei was a descendant of the Marquis of Linyi (临邑侯). As the title "Marquis of Linyi" was held by Liu Fu (刘复; a great-nephew of Emperor Guangwu) and later by Liu Fu's son Liu Taotu, who were descendants of Liu Fa (刘发), King Ding of Changsha – another son of Emperor Jing, it was possible that Liu Bei descended from this line rather than Liu Sheng's line.

Liu Bei's grandfather Liu Xiong and father Liu Hong both served in provincial and commandery offices. Liu Bei's grandfather, Liu Xiong did well and was recommended as a candidate for civil office in the xiaolian process. Then, he rose to become prefect of Fan (范) in Dong Commandery.

Early life (161-184)

However Liu Bei's father, Liu Hong didn't live long and Liu Bei grew up in a poor family, having lost his father when he was still a child. Also because of the (推恩令) even if Liu Bei is still related the royal family tree, his generation is no longer considered different than normal people. To support themselves, Liu Bei and his mother sold shoes and straw-woven mats. Even so, Liu Bei was full of ambition from childhood. In the southeast of his house, there was a mulberry tree that was very tall (11,5 meters high). When looked from far away, the tree's shade was similar to a small cart. People from all around the village felt that this tree was unique with some saying that the house would produce a person of nobility. A fortune teller named Li Ding (李定) of Zhuo stated: "This family will certainly produce an estimable man.". When he was a kid, Liu Bei would play beneath the tree with other children from the village. He would often say: "I must ride in this feather covered chariot (emperor chariot)." Liu Bei's uncle Zijing (子敬) thought of Liu Bei's dream as foolish and that he would bring destruction to his house.

In 175, when he was near his 15. His mother sent him to study with Lu Zhi, a distinguished man and former grand administrator of Jiujiang Commandery. Lu Zhi was from Zhuo Commandery, the same as Liu Bei. One of his fellow-students was Gongsun Zan of Liaodong with whom he became friends, since Gongsun Zan was the eldest, Liu Bei treated him as an elder brother. Another fellow-student was his kinsman Liu Deran. Liu Deran's father, Yuanqi 元起, often gave Liu Bei material support to help him and his mother and treated him the same as his son, Liu Deran. Yuanqi's wife wasn't happy about this and told him: 「Each has his own family. How can you regularly do this?」 Yuanqi answered: 「This boy is in our clan, and he is an extraordinary person.」.

The adolescent Liu Bei was said to be unenthusiastic in studying however he liked dogs and horse and displayed interest in hunting, music and dressing in fine clothing. He enjoyed associating with braves (haoxia), and in his youth he fought and hung out with them. He would not manifest his anger or happiness in front of others. Concise in speech, calm in demeanour and kind to his friends. Liu Bei was well liked by his contemporaries

Around this time, Two great horse merchants from Zhongshan. Zhang Shiping and Su Shuang (苏双), were very wealthy and had riches of several thousands in gold. They sold horses, and they passed through Zhuo commandery. They met Liu Bei and were struck by his appearance and personality. So they gifted him much money and wealth. Thanks to their assistance, Liu Bei was able to assemble a large group of followers.

Yellow Turban Rebellion (184-189)

In 184, at the end of the reign of Emperor Ling. The Yellow Turbans rose up and started the Yellow Turban Rebellion, every procinces and commandery would call for righteous man to defend the country. Liu Bei saw what was happening and became much more politically aware. He called for the assembly of a militia to help government forces suppress the rebellion. And rallied a group of loyal followers, including among them Guan Yu, Zhang Fei and Jian Yong.

Liu Bei led his militia to join the local government forces led by Colonel Zou Jing and participated in battles against the rebels with distinction. Around this time, Liu Ziping of Pingyuan heard of Liu Bei's reputation as a brave man. And when Zhang Chun (张纯) rebelled, the Qing Province was ordered by imperial decree to send an attendant official to lead an army to defeat Zhang Chun. As they passed through Pingyuan, Ziping recommended Liu Bei to the attendant official. Liu Bei accepted and joined him. When they met the rebels in the landscape. Liu Bei was grievely wounded and had to fake death. After the rebels left, a friend of him loaded him into a cart and carried him away. Thus he was able to escape. In recognition of his contributions, the Han central government appointed Liu Bei as the Prefect (令) of Anxi County (安喜县; northwest of present-day Anguo, Hebei), one of the counties in Zhongshan Commandery (中山郡).

Later, the Han central government decreed that any official who had gained the post as a reward for military contributions was to be dismissed and an inspector was sent to Liu Bei's prefecture. Liu Bei doubted that he would be among those to be dismissed. When Liu Bei saw the inspector he recognized him and wanted to meet him however the inspector refused to see him and claimed illness. Liu Bei was furious, he returned to his office and led clerks and soldiers to the postal relay station and forced his enter through the door and said: "I have been secretly instructed by the Commandery Administrator to arrest the inspector!" Thereupon he tied the inspector and led him to the outskirts of the district then he bound the inspector to a tree, undid his ribbon of office and tied the inspector's neck and gave him more than one hundred strokes with a bamboo stave. Liu Bei was ready to kill him but the inspector begged him for mercy and so he didn't. After that, he left his office.

He then travelled south with his followers to join another militia. Around this time, the General-in-Chief He Jin sent the Chief Commandant Guanqiu Yi (毌丘毅) to Danyang with the mission to recruit soldiers, and Liu Bei joined him in fighting the Yellow Turbans remnants in Xu Province. When they reached Xiapi, they met rebels army and Liu Bei fought hard with talent. As a reward for his contributions, the Han central government appointed him as the Prefect (令) and Commandant (都尉) of Gaotang County.

Warlord state

In Gongsun Zans service (189–194)

Liu Bei never participated in the Campaign against Dong Zhuo, although he is said to have raised troops for the purpose. Instead, he opted to move north to join an old friend, the warlord Gongsun Zan. In 191, they scored a major victory against another warlord Yuan Shao (leader of the former alliance against Dong Zhuo) in their struggle for control of Ji Province and Qing Province . Gongsun Zan nominated Liu Bei to be the Chancellor (相) of Pingyuan State and sent him to join his subordinate Tian Kai in fighting Yuan Shao's eldest son Yuan Tan in Qing Province. In defending against the shepherd of Ji province, Yuan Shao, he fought in battles with distinction. He was appointed probationary prefect of Pingyuan and later was made concurrent chancellor of Pingyuan.

At this time, a resident of Pingyuan, Liu Ping 刘平, had since long held Liu Bei in low esteem so he was ashamed at having to serve under him. Liu Ping hired an assassin to kill Liu Bei. Liu Bei didn't realize his intention and treated him generously, so much so that the assassin could not bring himself to kill him and so he informed Liu Bei before he left. Such was the extent to which the Liu Bei had won the hearts of the people. Pingyuan was poor and so people were starving and they banded together to commit robbery. Liu Bei externally guarded against bandits and internally he generously carried out economic measures. He would make persons who ranked beneath the elite sit on the same mat and eat from the same pot. He felt no cause to be picky, so people attached themselves to him in droves.

Succeeding Tao Qian (194)

In 194, Yuan Shao's ally, Cao Cao, attacked Tao Qian, the Governor of Xu Province. At the time, there were two opposing alliances – Yuan Shu, Tao Qian and Gongsun Zan on one side, Yuan Shao, Cao Cao and Liu Biao the other. In face of strong pressure from Cao Cao, Tao Qian appealed to Tian Kai for help. Tian Kai and Liu Bei led their armies to support Tao Qian. Liu Bei himself led over 5000 soldiers with mixed barbarian cavalry from the Wuhuan of You province. He also conscripted several thousand among the people.

Despite initial success in the invasion, Cao Cao's subordinate Zhang Miao rebelled and allowed Lü Bu to take over Cao Cao's base in Yan Province, forcing Cao Cao to retreat from Xu Province. Tao Qian asked Liu Bei to station his army in nearby Xiaopei and gave him 4,000 more troops from Danyang, in addition to the thousands troops and Wuhuan cavalry already under his command. Thus, Liu Bei broke with his supervisor Tian Kai for Tao Qian. Tao Qian became Liu Bei's mentor and Liu Bei benefited greatly under the tutelage of Tao Qian, who governed like a Confucian populist, which influenced Liu Bei's future governance. Then, Tao Qian memorialized the court to have Liu Bei appointed as the inspector of Yu province. Liu Bei led his army to Xiaopei, he then proceed to raise troops around the area, and actively built up connections with influential clans and people of the region. In a rather short period of time, he had gained the support of the two most powerful families in Xu Province: the Mi family led by Mi Zhu and Mi Fang, and the Chen family led by Chen Gui and Chen Deng.

Soon Tao Qian's illness became serious and he told to the mounted escort Mi Zhu: "Other than Liu Bei, there is no one who can bring peace to this province." Upon Tao Qian's death in 194, the Mi family backed Liu Bei, instead of one of Tao Qian's sons, to be the new Governor of Xu Province. Mi Zhu then led the residents of the province to meet Liu Bei, however he was hesitant and apprehensive about taking the post. He then consulted Kong Rong and Chen Deng.

Chen Deng told him: "Today the House of Han is in decline and the empire is in chaos. The time to establish merit and to accomplish affairs is today. That province is rich, with a population of a million. We wish to impose on you the post of the inspector and have you assume charge of the affairs of the province." Liu Bei answered: "Yuan Shu is nearby at Shouchun. That man is from a line of four dukes in five generations. The empire is turning to him. You can give the province to him.」 Chen Deng then said: "Gonglu is arrogant. He is not the ruler to bring order out of the chaos. Now, I wish to assemble 100,000 infantry and cavalry for my lord. Above, you can assist our sovereign and bring aid to the common people then you could fulfill the calling of the Five Hegemons. Below you could allocate territory and preserve the boundaries. Finally, you could write your achievements on bamboo and silk to be recorded for the posterity. If the inspector does not assent then I also dare not to obey the inspector."

Kong Rong at that time was the chancellor of Beihai and told him: "Is Yuan Gonglu someone who will be concerned about the state and forget his family? In what way are dried bones in the grave worthy of our attention? As far as today's matter is concerned, the people will adhere to men of talent and ability. If one does not accept what heaven offers to him then it will be too late if you regret it later.」 Both of them advised him to form an alliance with Yuan Shao.

At that time, Chen Deng with Mi Zhu and the others sent a messenger to call on to Yuan Shao saying: "Heaven has sent down disastrous stench and misfortune has fallen upon our humble and small region. Recently, Tao Qian has died and the people are without a ruler. They fear that greedy rapace will one day take advantage of the opening to extend themselves and so are very anxious. However, they will embrace the former Administrator of Pingyuan, Liu Bei, as their rightful leader. Hence allowing the people to know that hey have someone to rely on. Just now rebel are around all the region; there』s not a moment of peace to remove his armor. And so we respectfully send lower officials to report this to the officials in charge." Yuan Shao answered: "Liu Xuande is liberal and refined. He is also known as a man of trust and righteousness. Now that Xu region happily accepts him. This matches my own desires." Liu Bei finally took over Xu Province after Yuan Shao recognised the legitimacy of his governorship.

Conflict with Lü Bu (195–198)

In 195, Lü Bu was defeated by Cao Cao and sought shelter under Liu Bei. In the next year, Yuan Shu sent his general Ji Ling with an army to invade Xu Province. In response, Liu Bei led his troops to counter Ji Ling's advances near present-day Xuyi County and stopped him at Xuyi and Huaiyin (淮阴). Around this time, Cao Cao memorialized to appoint Liu Bei as General Who Subdues The East and enfeoffed him as marquis of Yicheng Village. This was in the first year of the Jian'an period (196).

Liu Bei and Yuan Shu had a standoff for about a month without any decisive result. In the meantime, Zhang Fei, whom Liu Bei left in charge of Xiapi Commandery (下邳郡; around present-day Pizhou, Jiangsu), the capital of Xu Province, murdered Cao Bao, the Chancellor of Xiapi, after an intense quarrel. Cao Bao's death stirred up unrest in Xiapi Commandery which provided the warlord Lü Bu an opportunity to link up with defectors from Liu Bei's side to seize control of Xiapi Commandery and capture Liu Bei's family.

Upon receiving news of Lü Bu's intrusion, Liu Bei immediately headed back to Xiapi Commandery but most of his troops deserted along the way. With his remaining men, Liu Bei moved eastward to take Guangling Commandery, where Yuan Shu's forces defeated him. Liu Bei then retreated to Haixi County (海西县; southeast of present-day Guannan County, Jiangsu). At this time, Yang Feng and Han Xian were brigands who raided the area between Yang and Xu provinces. Liu Bei caught and defeated them. After his victory, he had both of them executed.

However, surrounded by hostile forces and facing a lack of food supplies, Liu Bei and his men resorted to cannibalism. Pressed by poverty and hunger, Liu Bei's men wanted to return to Xiopei. Liu Bei eventually had no choice but to sent an official request to surrender to Lü Bu who accepted his surrender and ordered Liu Bei to return to the seat of Xu and to combine their strength to defeat Yuan Shu. He then prepared the regional inspector's chariot and returned his family to the bank of the Si River as an act of good faith. Before Liu Bei left, there was a farewell banquet and everyone was content.

Lü Bu, fearing that Yuan Shu would turn on him after eliminating Liu Bei, obstructed Yuan Shu's attempts to destroy Liu Bei. At this time, Lu Bu's commanders said to him: "Liu Bei has changed his allegiance too often. It is difficult to know what he is going to do and develop relations with him. Soon, you will have to think of a way to take care of him." However, Lu Bu didn't listen and even related the matter to Liu Bei. Liu Bei was alarmed and maneuvered to distance himself, sending a messenger to Lü Bu with a request to be relocated to Xiaopei. Lü Bu agreed, and Liu Bei was able to safely arrive at Xiaopei where he immediately raised 10,000 troops.

Upon seeing Liu Bei's growing power, Lü Bu became worried that Liu Bei would turn against him, so he launched a preemptive attack on Xiaopei. Liu Bei fled to the imperial capital, Xuchang, where he took shelter under Cao Cao, the warlord who had been controlling the Han central government since he had brought the figurehead Emperor Xian of Han to Xuchang in 196. Cao Cao welcomed Liu Bei warmly, used Emperor Xian's name to appoint him as the Governor of Yu Province, and put him in command of some troops. Liu Bei then returned to Xiaopei to keep an eye on Lü Bu.

In 198, Lü Bu renewed his alliance with Yuan Shu to counter Cao Cao's growing influence and sent Gao Shun and Zhang Liao to attack Liu Bei at Xiaopei. Cao Cao sent Xiahou Dun to support Liu Bei but he was unable to rescue Liu Bei and they were defeated by Gao Shun again he had his family captured by Gao Shun who sent them to Lu Bu. Liu Bei fled to Xuchang to take shelter under Cao Cao, who brought Liu Bei along as he personally led an army to attack Lü Bu in Xu Province. Later that year, the combined forces of Cao Cao and Liu Bei defeated Lü Bu at the Battle of Xiapi; Lü Bu was captured and executed after his defeat. Liu Bei recovered his wife and children and followed Cao Cao back to Xu. Cao Cao sent a memorial to have Liu Bei promoted as General Of The Left. Cao Cao treated treated him with great sympathy. When they went out, they would ride in the same chariot and when they sat, it was on the same mat.

Role in the Cao–Yuan conflict (199–201)

By 199, Cao Cao enjoyed a strong political advantage over his rivals because he had Emperor Xian and the Han central government firmly under his control. During this time, Liu Bei participated in a conspiracy with Dong Cheng, Colonel of the Chang River Encampment Zhong Ji (种辑), General Wu Zilan (吴子兰) and General Wang Zifu (王子服) to assassinate Cao Cao, after Dong Cheng had received a secret edict from within the Emperor Xian's clothing and girdle to kill Cao Cao. Around this time, Cao Cao said brusquely to Liu Bei: "Currently among the heroes of the empire, there is only you and I. The ilk of Benchu are not worth counting.」 At this moment, Liu Bei was taking a bite and from the shock dropped his chopstick and spoon. He excused himself on account of a clap of thunder and told to Cao Cao: "When the wise said, 「If there is a sudden clap of thunder and a fierce wind, I must change my countenance」 it was truly with reason. The awesomeness of a single clap can cause this!"

However, at the same time, Liu Bei was anxious to leave Xuchang and be free of Cao Cao's control. Thus, upon hearing news that Yuan Shu was on his way to join Yuan Shao after his defeat, Liu Bei requested permission from Cao Cao to lead an army to stop Yuan Shu. Cao Cao agreed and sent Liu Bei and Zhu Ling to lead an army to block Yuan Shu, who retreated back to his base in Shouchun and died there later that year. While Zhu Ling returned to Xu, Liu Bei remained in command of the army and led them to attack and seize control of Xu Province after murdering Che Zhou (车胄), the provincial governor appointed by Cao Cao. Liu Bei then moved to Xiaopei while leaving Guan Yu in charge of Xu Province's capital, Xiapi.

Chang Ba (昌霸) of Donghai used this occasion to rebel. Also, many commanderies and prefectures entered in rebellion and joined Liu Bei against Cao Cao. Soon, their mass totaled more than ten thousands of persons. In the meantime, Yuan Shao had defeated Gongsun Zan and was preparing to attack Cao Cao in the Henan region. Liu Bei then sent his adviser Sun Qian to meet Yuan Shao and request that he launch an immediate attack on Cao Cao, but Yuan Shao refused. In 200, Cao Cao discovered Dong Cheng's conspiracy and had all the participants rounded up and executed along with their families. Liu Bei survived the purge because he was not in Xuchang.

Having achieved stability in Xuchang, Cao Cao turned his attention towards preparing for a battle with Yuan Shao. He fortified many key crossing points along the south banks of the Yellow River and set up a main camp at Guandu. At the same time, he sent his subordinates Liu Dai and Wang Zhong to attack Liu Bei in Xu Province but they were defeated. Cao Cao then made a highly risky move: He predicted that Yuan Shao would not make any advances so he secretly left his defensive position along the Yellow River and personally led an army to Xu Province to attack Liu Bei. Under the weight of Cao Cao's attacks, Liu Bei's forces quickly disintegrated and Xu Province fell to Cao Cao. Zhang Fei protected Liu Bei as he fled from Xiaopei after his defeat; Guan Yu, isolated in Xiapi Commandery, was captured by Cao Cao's forces and decided to surrender and temporarily serve under Cao Cao. Liu Bei headed north to join Yuan Shao.

Liu Bei first went to Qing province which was under Yuan Tan's supervision. Before Liu Bei had formerly recommended Yuan Tan as an "abundant talent' and so they had good relation, Yuan Tan himself led infantry and cavalry to welcome him. Both of them then left for Pingyuan. Yuan Tan then sent a messenger to report to his father. Yuan Shan then sent a commander to greet Liu Bei and personally went 200 li from Ye to welcome him. Both Yuan Shao and Yuan Tan greatly esteemed Liu Bei. He then stayed a month and a few days, and soon his soldiers regrouped under him. He participated in the Battle of Yan Ford alongside Yuan Shao's general Wen Chou against Cao Cao's forces, but they suffered a defeat and Wen Chou was killed in battle.

As Liu Pi, a former Yellow Turban rebel, started a revolt in Runan Commandery (southeastern Henan), Liu Bei convinced Yuan Shao to "lend" him troops to assist Liu Pi. At this time, Guan Yu rejoined Liu Bei. Liu Bei and Liu Pi then led their forces from Runan Commandery to attack Xuchang while Cao Cao was away at Guandu, but they were defeated by Cao Ren. Liu Bei then returned to Yuan Shao and urged him to ally with Liu Biao, the Governor of Jing Province. Yuan Shao then sent him with some troops to Runan Commandery to assist another rebel leader, Gong Du (共都/龚都). Liu Bei and Gong Du defeated and killed Cai Yang (蔡阳), one of Cao Cao's officers who led troops to attack them.

Taking refuge under Liu Biao (201–208)

In 201, Cao Cao led his army to attack Liu Bei in Runan Commandery after his victory over Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu. Liu Bei sent Mi Zhu and Sun Qian as ambassadors to Liu Biao. Liu Biao himself came to the outskirts to greet Liu Bei and his followers and treated them with utmost courtesy due an honoured guest. He gave him some troops and sent him to station at Xinye County in northern Jing Province to guard against Cao Cao's advances. Soon many men of talents joined Liu Bei and his rank greatly increased. Liu Biao didn't trust him completely and secretly guarded against Liu Bei.

In 202, Liu Biao ordered Liu Bei to fend off Xiahou Dun, Yu Jin and the other officers at Bowang. Liu Bei led his army and set up an ambush. Eventually, he set fire to his own camp and faked a retreat. When Xiahou Dun led his soldiers to the pursuit, they were crushed by the troops lying in ambush at Battle of Bowang. Liu Bei stayed in Jing Province for about seven years. When he was talking with Liu Biao, he rose up to go to the toilet. Then, he noticed that the flesh in his thighshad had increased, he sighed heavily and wept. When he returned to his seat, Liu Biao was surprised and asked him about it. Liu Bei replied: "When I was younger, I've never left the saddle. My thighs were thin. Now I do not ride anymore, they has grown. The days and months pass like a stream, and old age will come, but I have achieved nothing. That's why I am sad."

Once, Liu Bei camped at Fancheng with his soldiers. Liu Biao was friendly to him however he was also anxious about Liu Bei's conduct and did not place much trust in him. One day, had asked Liu Bei to him for a banquet. Kuai Yue and Cai Mao wanted to use this as an occasion to kill Liu Bei. Liu Bei saw through this and pretented to go to the toilet and nimbly escaped. His horse was named Dilu (的卢), and he quickly ride him. However, during the pursuit, he fell into the waters of the Tan Stream west of Xiangyang city.Liu Bei was drowning and couldn't get away from the river. He then cried: "Dilu! Today I』m in dire straits! Give it your all!" Dilu then jumped three zhang (7 meters) in a single leap and thus both of them got across. Quickly they found a ferry and crossed the river. While they were at half of the river, the pursuers caught up to them and could only apologize on Liu Biao's behalf whilfe saying: "Why are you leaving already?"

In 207, Cao Cao planned a campaign to conquer the Wuhuan in the north, but was apprehensive that Liu Biao might attack his base but he was assured by Guo Jia that Liu Biao would not do so for fear of Liu Bei being more powerful than he was. Cao Cao agreed and Guo Jia's point was proven later, when Liu Biao refused to attack Xu when Liu Bei advised him to do so. When Cao Cao returned from Liucheng. Liu Biao told to Liu Bei: "I didn』t adopt your proposal and now I lost this great opportunity." Liu Bei answered: 「Now the empire is in chaos and every days there are battles. What seem to be a good opportunity may present himself later. If you are able to respond to them accordingly then this isn't worth regret."

Away from the battlefields in the east and under Liu Biao's efficient rule, Jing Province was prosperous and a popular destination for literati fleeing from the destruction of war. Liu Bei asked Sima Hui, a revered recluse, about scholars. Sima Hui's friend Pan Degong named Zhuge Liang and Pang Tong as exceptional talents who could comprehend important events of their time well. Xu Shu also urged Liu Bei to call on Zhuge Liang. Liu Bei went to see Zhuge Liang and finally had an audience with him after three visits. Zhuge Liang presented Liu Bei with his Longzhong Plan, a general long-term plan outlining the takeover of Jing Province and Yi Province to set up a two-pronged final strike at the imperial capital.

Liu Biao died in 208 and his younger son Liu Cong succeeded him and surrendered to Cao Cao without informing Liu Bei. By the time Liu Bei heard news of Liu Cong's surrender, Cao Cao's army had already reached Wan. When he head of his surrender, he had someone close to him ask about it. Liu Zhong then sent Song Zhong (宋忠) to Liu Bei. When they met, Cao Cao was at Wan and Liu Bei was furious, he said to Song Zhong: "All of you act in such undesirable way and are not honest with us from the start. Now only when catastrophe is near do you dare to show your face. Are you thinking of me as a fool?" Liu Bei pulled his sword on Song Zhong and said: "If I were to behead you now, It would quell my rage. Howerver It would be a shame for a man of my stature to kill someone like you when they are about to fall." Liu Bei sent Son Zhong away and summoned his officers to discuss of the next strategy. Among them, some wanted for Liu Bei to forced Liu Zhong, his officials and the elites (吏士) of Jing province to flee south of Jiangling. However Liu Bei replied: "When Liu Biao was near death, he confided me with his orphaned sons. Now I would have to betray him and his trust to save myself and this isn't something I am ready to do. After death, how could I face him!"

Liu Bei led his troops away and abandoned Fancheng, leading civilians and his followers on an exodus to the south. Around this time, Zhuge Liang advised Liu Bei to launch an attack on Liu Cong, then Jing province may belong to him. Liu Bei answered that he couldn't bear to do it. Then he passed near Liu Cong's city and wanted to see him. However Liu Cong was afraid and would not move. Many of Liu Cong's supporters and the people of Jing joined him. Around this time, Liu Bei took his leave at Liu Biao's grave. He wept at the situation Jing province was.

By the time they reached Dangyang (当阳; south of present-day Duodao District, Jingmen, Hubei), his followers numbered more than 100,000 and they moved only 10 li a day. Liu Bei sent Guan Yu ahead to wait for him in Jiangling, where abundant supplies and arsenal were stored, with Jing Province's fleet. Among Liu Bei's followers, some said to him: 「You should move fast and then hold Jiangling. Although our force is large, few ammong them have military equipments. If Cao Cao's army comes, how will you stop him?」 Liu Bei answered to them: 「In coping with a situation one must alway consider men as fundamental. Now that men are joining me, how can I reject them!」

Afraid that Liu Bei might reach Jiangling County which had military stores before him, Cao Cao led his cavalry on pursuit for Xiangyang. When he learned that he already passed through there. He urged his 5000 elite troops, in a day and a night they covered over 300 li and Cao Cao caught up with Liu Bei and captured most of his people and baggage at the Battle of Changban. Leaving his family behind, Liu Bei fled with only scores of followers. He made it to the Han Ford where he met with Guan Yu's fleet, they crossed the Mian River to Jiangxia Commandery and the Yangtze River to Xiakou, where they took shelter under Liu Qi, Liu Biao's elder son and met up with over 10,000 followers. Liu Qi objected to his brother's surrender to Cao Cao and was able to maintain Jiangxia Commandery and Xiakou allowing more of his father's former subordinates to escape from Cao Cao.

Alliance with Sun Quan

Battles of Red Cliffs and Jiangling (208-211)

When Liu Bei was still at Dangyang, Lu Su met him, discussed with him of the situation in the empire and hinted that he should ally with the warlord Sun Quan against Cao Cao. After that, Lu Su asked Liu Bei where he wanted to go next. Liu Bei answered that him and Wu Ju (吴巨) the Administrator of Cangwu Commandery were friends and that he desired to join him. Lu Su told Liu Bei: "Sun Quan is talented and kind. His treats both the elites and the worthies with respect. All the heroes from the south of the Yangtze river already joined him. He also holds the six commanderies, his troops trained and the supplies abundant. You should join him. Now, I propose this plan to you. You should sent a confidant of you as an envoy to the east and establish connections, promote the gains of this alliance and together we shall follow the same goal. But you speak of Wu Ju. He has no talents and command a distant commandery. He will soon be under another. How could you entrust yourself to him?". Liu Bei agreed with Lu Su.

Zhuge Liang, as Liu Bei's representative, followed Lu Su to meet Sun Quan at Chaisang County (柴桑县; southwest of present-day Jiujiang, Jiangxi), where they discussed the formation of a Sun–Liu alliance against Cao Cao. Liu Bei and Sun Quan formed their first alliance against the southward expansion of Cao Cao. Both sides clashed at the Battle of Red Cliffs, which concluded with a decisive victory for the Sun–Liu side. Liu Bei and the Sun troops advanced by land and water until Cao Cao was pushed to Nan Commandery. Cao Cao retreated north after his defeat and left behind Cao Ren and Xu Huang to guard Jiangling County and Yue Jin to defend Xiangyang.

Sun Quan's forces, led by Zhou Yu, attacked Cao Ren after their resounding victory to wrestle for control of Jiangling County. Liu Bei recommended Liu Qi to be the new Inspector of Jing Province and led his men to capture the four commanderies in southern Jing Province – Changsha (长沙) led by Han Xuan, Lingling (零陵) led by Liu Du, Guiyang led by Zhao Fan and Wuling led by Jin Xuan. Lei Xu (雷绪) of Lujiang (庐江) also amassed many followers and led ten thousands of soldiers to Liu Bei. Liu Bei set up his base at Gong'an County and continued to strengthen his forces.

When Liu Qi died in 209 shortly after Liu Bei secured his position in southern Jing Province. All of Liu Qi's followers wanted for Liu Bei to succeed him as the new Inspector of Jing Province with his administrative seat at Gongan which he accepted. To further strengthen the Sun–Liu alliance, Liu Bei travelled to Sun Quan's territory to marry Sun Quan's younger sister, Lady Sun. After the political marriage, Sun Quan not only recognised the legitimacy of Liu Bei's control over southern Jing Province, but also agreed to "lend" Nan Commandery to him.

Sun Quan sent an envoy to Liu Bei and expressed his desire for both of them to conquer Yi province. The emissary reported to Liu Bei:"The Rice Bandit, Zhang Lu has made his base in Ba and acted as a king. He served as Cao Cao's ears an eyes and want to conquer Yi province. Liu Zhang is weak and can't defend himself. If Cao Cao gained Yi province the Jing would be in danger! Now, you should first conquer Liu Zhang then Zhang Lu. The tail and the head are connected. Once we united Wu and Chu even if there is ten Cao Cao, there would be no need for worry."

Liu Bei's officers thought Liu Bei should conquer this land alone since Sun Quan couldn't extend his land beyond Jing province. Yin Guan (殷观) at this time was master of records of Jing province, he said: "If you act as the vanguard for Sun Quan and moved your army but fall to conquer Yi province then while you are away, Sun Quan could use this to his advantage and everything would be lost! For the time being, you should only encourage his attack on Yi while you explain that you recently conquered several commanderies and cannot act yet. Sun Quan would not dare to pass through us to take Yi alone. With such a strategy of advance and withdrawal, you can reap the both the benefits of Sun Quan and the Yi province.」 Liu Bei agreed and followed this plan, he then had Yin Guan promoted to be mounted escort attendant.

And so Liu Bei answered to Sun Quan: "The people of Yi province are strong and rich moreover the land is hard to conquer. Even if Liu Zhang is weak, he can defend himself. Zhang Lu is crafty and may not be loyal to Cao Cao. Now with the fierce soldiers of Yi and the complicate terrain, the battle is far more harder and may be something that Wu Qi couldn't accomplish even less an officer of Sun. Even if Cao Cao wanted to destitute the emperor, he still is officially his protector. And when the civils saw his defeat at Cibhi, they said that his ambition was over and his power ended. However he already possesses two thirds of the empire and he surely wants to take his horse to the farest of the world and led his army to Wu-Gui Commanderies. Why would he allow us expend ourselves while waiting for his death? Now if we were to attack an ally (Liu Zhang) without reason, Cao Cao would use this opportunity to crushed us while we are infighting. This is not a good plan."

Sun Quan didn't listen and sent Sun Yu to led his troops and camped at Xiakou (夏口). However Liu Bei blocked this army and would not allow them to pass. He said to Sun Yu: "If you take Yi then I shall let my hair down, go into the mountains and become an hermit so I would not lose the trust of the empire."Also he ordered Guan Yu to encamp at Jiangling, Zhang Fei at Zigui, Zhuge Liang in Nan commandery and Liu Bei himself led his men at Zhanling. When Sun Quan saw this, he grasped Liu Bei』s intentions and had to order Sun Yu to return.

Subsequently, former subordinates of Liu Biao who were unwilling to serve Cao Cao came to join Liu Bei. After the death of Zhou Yu in 210 and Liu Bei's growing influence in southern Jing Province, Sun Quan's position in the north became more untenable. Lu Su succeeded Zhou Yu as the frontline commander of Sun Quan's armies and moved the headquarters to Lukou (陆口), yielding all commanderies of Jing Province (except Jiangxia Commandery) and access to Yi Province to Liu Bei.

Establishing the Shu kingdom

Conquering Yi Province (211-215)

In 211, Liu Zhang, the Governor of Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing), heard that Cao Cao planned to attack the warlord Zhang Lu in Hanzhong Commandery. As Hanzhong Commandery was a strategic location and the northern "gateway" into Yi Province, Liu Zhang was afraid. At this time, the mounted escort Zhang Song told him: "Cao Cao's armies are strong and without a match in the empire. If he was able to use Zhang Lu's grain stores and launch an invasion of Yi province, who could stop him." Liu Zhang answered that he was worried but without a plan. Zhang Song answered: "Liu Bei is of the same clan as you and he is an unstoppable rival of Cao Cao. He commands troops with talent. If we used him to conquer Zhang Lu, Zhang Lu would surely be defeated. With Zhang Lu vanquished, Yi province would be safe and even if Cao Cao were to come, he would be defeated."

After listening to the advice from Zhang Song, Liu Zhang sent Fa Zheng with 4000 men to form an alliance with Liu Bei and presented him with many expensive gifts. Zhang Song and Fa Zheng privately disapproved of Liu Zhang's governance and looked at Liu Bei as a solution for a legitimate successor. When Liu Bei met them, he welcomed them warmly and treated them with kindness. He used this opportunity to lear more about Yi province mostly the weaponry, stores and number of horses as well as other strategic locations and their distance to each other. Zhang Song and his entourage told him about everything and furthmore drew a map of Yi province with the location of the mountains and rivers. With their help, Liu Bei learned all about Yi province. Liu Zhang invited Liu Bei to join him in Yi Province to capture Hanzhong Commandery before Cao Cao did.

Liu Bei led an expedition force of several ten thousands soldiers into Yi Province after leaving behind Zhuge Liang, Guan Yu, Zhang Fei and Zhao Yun to guard Jing Province. Liu Zhang welcomed Liu Bei, when they saw each other, both of them were friendly. Before this Zhang Song told Fa Zheng to report to Liu Bei, that with the consellor Pang Tong backing, they could ambush Liu Zhang at the meeting spot. However Liu Bei thought that the plan was too hasty for such an important act.

Liu Zhang then sent a proposition to have Liu Bei be made Commander in Chief and colonel director of the retainers. Liu Bei also proposed Liu Zhang to be General Who Subdues The West and Gouvernor of Yi province. Liu Zhang provided him with more troops under his command and have him supervised the White River Army. With those reinforcement, Liu Bei's army was over 30 000 men with plenty of weapons and horses. While Liu Zhang left for Chengdu, Liu Bei headed to Jiameng Pass (southwest of present-day Guangyuan, Sichuan) at the border between Liu Zhang and Zhang Lu's territories. Instead of engaging Zhang Lu, Liu Bei halted his advance and focused on building connections and gaining influence around the area. He was kind and virtuous and so he soon gained the hearts of the masses

Next year, in 212, Cao Cao launched a campaign against Sun Quan and he soon called Liu Bei for help. Liu Bei sent a messenger to Liu Zhang: "Cao Cao campaigned against Sun and now they are in danger. Both me and them were like "lips and teeth". Moreover, Guan Yu is fighting against Yue Jian at Qingni (清泥). If I don't go to help him now and he is defeated then he will invade Jing province and the danger will be greater than Zhang Lu. Zhang Lu is looking to preserve his state. He isn't worth to worry about."and he requested that another 10,000 soldiers and additional provisions aid in the defence of Jing Province. Liu Zhang gave him only 4,000 troops and half of the other supplies he requested. Liu Bei used this as a way to motivate his troops: "I'm fighting the ennemies of the province. My men are tired and cannot enjoy a peaceful life. While Liu Zhang amasses wealth in his palaces but reward mertis feebly. He hopes for the wothies and the brave to go fight in his place. But how can he thinks as such?"

Fa Zheng, Zhang Song and Meng Da set into motion their plan but they worried that Liu Bei would leave. They said to him that now that success is near, how could he give up and leave. At this time, Zhang Su(张肃), Zhang Song's brother, discovered his brother's secret communications with Liu Bei and reported the issue to Liu Zhang. Liu Zhang was furious and stunned when he heard that Zhang Song had been helping Liu Bei to take over Yi Province from him – he executed Zhang Song and ordered his officers guarding the passes to Chengdu to keep secret documents and letters to Liu Bei.

When Liu Bei found out from the spies he planted around Liu Zhang, he was furious. Fa Zheng and Meng Da defected to Liu Bei's side before Yang Huai and Gao Pei (高沛), Liu Zhang's subordinates guarding Boshui Pass, knew about Liu Bei's true motive. Liu Bei lured Yang Huai and Gao Pei into a trap and executed them for behaving disrespectfully towards him. He then took command of Yang Huai's and Gao Pei's troops, numbering under 5,000. Liu Bei then had Huang Zhong and Zhuo Ying lead his soldiers against Liu Zhang. When he enterred the different passes, he took the commanders as hostage along with their family. He then advanced with his troops and turned to attack Fu County (涪县; present-day Mianyang, Sichuan).

In the spring of 213, Liu Zhang sent Liu Gui, Ling Bao, Zhang Ren, Deng Xian, Wu Yi and other officers to stop him at Fu. However all were soundly defeated and had to retreat to Mianzhu. They were killed or captured by Liu Bei's forces. Despite being the most trusted vassal of Liu Zhang, Wu Yi soon changed allegiance, Li Yan and Fei Guan were sent to help them at Mianzhu, but they surrendered to Liu Bei as well. Liu Bei's army was getting stronger and he sent commanders to pacify the other prefectures. Among them were Zhuge Liang, Zhang Fei, Zhao Yun. They led their army and pacify Baidi Jiangzhou and Jiangyang. Only Guan Yu stayed behind to defend Jing province.

Now the remnant force was under command of Liu Zhang's son, Liu Xun, and he retreated to Luo County (northwest of Chengdu, Sichuan). There, Pang Tong was killed by a stray arrow, and the siege became a prolonged one for nearly a year. In 214, after Luo County fell to Liu Bei. Liu Zhang continued to hold up inside Chengdu. Ma Chao, a former warlord and vassal under Zhang Lu, defected to Liu Bei's side and joined him in attacking Chengdu. Although Chengdu's citizens were terrified by Ma Chao's army, they insisted on putting up a desperate fight against the enemy. However, Liu Zhang surrendered to Liu Bei after stating that he did not wish to see further bloodshed. Liu Bei then succeeded Liu Zhang as the Governor of Yi Province and relocated him to Gong'an County in Jing Province. The Yi province was rich and prosper, Liu Bei had a banquet prepared for the officers and soldiers. He used the gold and silver to repay them and distributed ilk and grain to the common people.

Liu Bei married Wu Yi's sister and went on numerous public tours to consolidate his control on the newly conquered Yi Province. He promoted Zhuge Liang to an office that granted him control over all affairs of state and appointed Dong He as Zhuge Liang's deputy. Fa Zheng as his strategist. Guan Yu, Zhang Fei and Ma Chao as his commanders. Xu Jing, Mi Zhu and Jian Yong as his guests. The rest of Liu Bei's followers, new and old, were entrusted with new responsibilities and promoted to new ranks with Liu Zhang's followers promoted into prominent positions so their talents would not be wasted. Among the talented with ambitions, all competed for Liu Bei's attention.

Sun–Liu territorial dispute (215-217)

After Liu Bei's conquest of Yi Province, Sun Quan sent Lu Su as an emissary to demand the return of the commanderies in southern Jing Province, but Liu Bei refused and told him to wait until he took Liang province. Sun Quan was furious then sent Lü Meng and Ling Tong to lead 20,000 men to attack southern Jing Province and they succeeded in capturing Changsha, Guiyang and Lingling commanderies. In the meantime, Lu Su and Gan Ning advanced to Yiyang County with 10,000 men to block Guan Yu) and took over command of the army at Lukou. Liu Bei personally went to Gong'an County with 50 000 soldiers while Guan Yu led 30,000 men to Yiyang County. When war was about to break out, Liu Bei received news that Cao Cao was planning to attack Hanzhong Commandery after Zhang Lu fled to Baxi.

Liu Bei became worried about Cao Cao seizing Hanzhong Commandery. and requested for a border treaty with Sun Quan for the Jing province with Jiangxia, Changsha and Guiyang going to Sun Quan while Nan commandery, Lingling and Wuling would go back to Liu Bei, setting the new border along the Xiang River. Liu Bei led his army back to Ba commandery and had Huang Quan sent to lead troops to meet Zhang Lu, however he already had surrendered to Cao Cao.

Hanzhong Campaign (217-219)

In 215, Cao Cao defeated Zhang Lu at the Battle of Yangping and seized Hanzhong Commandery. Sima Yi and Liu Ye advised him to take advantage of the victory to attack Yi Province, since it was still unstable under Liu Bei's new government and Liu Bei himself was away in Jing Province. Cao Cao, who was not fond of the terrain of the region, refused and left Xiahou Yuan, Zhang He and Xu Huang to defend Hanzhong Commandery.

In anticipation of a prolonged war, Zhang He led his army to Dangqu Commandery (宕渠郡; around present-day Qu County, Sichuan) in order to relocate the population of Ba Commandery (巴郡; present-day Chongqing and eastern Sichuan) to Hanzhong Commandery. Meanwhile, Liu Bei appointed Zhang Fei as the Administrator of Baxi Commandery (巴西郡) and ordered him to take over the region. Zhang Fei and Zhang He faced each other for 50 days, which concluded with a victory for the former following a surprise attack on the latter. Narrowly escaping, Zhang He retreated to Nanzheng County on foot, and the Ba region became part of Liu Bei's territory.

In 217, Fa Zheng pointed out the strategic necessities of seizing Hanzhong Commandery and advised Liu Bei to drive Cao Cao's force out of the area. Liu Bei sent Zhang Fei, Ma Chao and others to capture Wudu Commandery (武都郡), while he assembled an army and advanced to Yangping Pass. Zhang Fei was forced to retreat after his aides Wu Lan and Lei Tong (雷铜) were defeated and killed by Cao Cao's forces. Liu Bei, engaging Xiahou Yuan at Yangping Pass, tried to cut the enemy's supply route by sending his general Chen Shi to Mamingge, but was routed by Xiahou Yuan's subordinate, Xu Huang. Liu Bei then pressed on Zhang He at Guangshi but failed to achieve any success; at the same time, Xiahou Yuan and Zhang He were not able to hinder Liu Bei from mobilising forces around the area. The war turned into a stalemate, and Cao Cao decided to gather an army in Chang'an to fight Liu Bei.

In the spring of 218, Liu Bei and Xiahou Yuan had faced each other for over a year. Liu Bei led the main army to the south of the Mian River (沔水) and ordered Huang Zhong to set up camps on Mount Dingjun, where Xiahou Yuan's encampment in the valley below could be easily monitored. One night, Liu Bei sent 10,000 troops to attack Zhang He in Guangshi and set fire to Xiahou Yuan's barricades. Xiahou Yuan then led a small detachment to put out the fire and sent the main army to reinforce Zhang He. Fa Zheng saw an opportunity for attack and signalled to Liu Bei to launch an assault. Liu Bei sent Huang Zhong to attack the weakened enemy from above. Huang Zhong targeted Xiahou Yuan's unit and completely routed it. Both Xiahou Yuan and Zhao Yong, Cao Cao's appointed Inspector of Yi Province, were killed in the battle.

Zhang He, who had been informally elected to succeed Xiahou Yuan by Du Xi and Guo Huai, retreated to the northern bank of the Han River, and awaited Cao Cao's reinforcement from Chang'an. Liu Bei knew Cao Cao would come yet he knew he would hold Hanzhong. He secured all strategic points at the exit of the passes linking Chang'an and Hanzhong Commandery while Cao Cao was approaching via Xie Valley. Liu Bei faced Cao Cao for several months but never engaged the latter in battle, effectively forcing Cao to retreat as many of his soldiers started to desert. Zhang He also retreated to Chencang County (陈仓县; east of present-day Baoji, Shaanxi) to set up defences for a potential invasion by Liu Bei. Liu Bei led his main army to Nanzheng County and sent Meng Da and Liu Feng to capture Fangling (房陵) and Shangyong (上庸) commanderies from Shen Dan (申耽).

In 219, after Liu Bei conquered Hanzhong Commandery, his subjects urged him to declare himself a vassal king too to challenge Cao Cao, who was enfeoffed as a vassal king ("King of Wei") by Emperor Xian in 219. Liu Bei thus declared himself "King of Hanzhong" (汉中王) and set up his headquarters in Chengdu, the capital of Yi Province.

He designated his son Liu Shan as his heir-apparent. Wei Yan was put in charge of Hanzhong Commandery. Xu Jing and Fa Zheng were respectively appointed as Grand Tutor and Prefect of the Masters of Writing in Liu Bei's vassal kingdom, while Guan Yu, Zhang Fei, Ma Chao and Huang Zhong were respectively appointed Generals of the Vanguard, Right, Left and Rear.) Sanguozhi vol. 32.

Becoming an emperor (219-221)

In early winter 219, Sun Quan's forces led by Lü Meng invaded Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province and captured and executed Guan Yu. After learning of Guan Yu's death and the loss of Jing Province, Liu Bei turned furious and ordered his troops to begin preparing for war with Sun Quan. In early 220, Cao Cao died and was succeeded by his son, Cao Pi. Later that year, Cao Pi usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, ended the Eastern Han dynasty and established the state of Cao Wei with himself as the emperor. With some report saying that the Han Emperor had been killed. Liu Bei declared mourning and adopted mourning clothes. He gave the emperor the posthumous title of The Filial Commiserating Emperor (孝愍皇帝).

When Meng Da learned that Liu Bei was going to launch a campaign against Sun Quan, he became concerned that he would be punished for not sending reinforcements to Guan Yu earlier, so he defected to Wei. At the same time, Zhao Yun, Qin Mi and others reminded Liu Bei that he should focus his attack on Cao Pi instead of Sun Quan, but Liu Bei rejected their advice. Seeing that Liu Bei did not prepare strong defences against Wei, Meng Da suggested a plan to Cao Pi to attack Fangling, Shangyong and Xicheng commanderies. Liu Bei's adopted son, Liu Feng, fought a desperate battle against the invaders, but he was betrayed by his subordinates and defeated. Upon his return to Chengdu, Liu Bei was furious with Liu Feng's loss and his refusal to send reinforcement to Guan Yu in 219. Upon Zhuge Liang's suggestion, Liu Bei had Liu Feng commit suicide and wept after he died.

In 221, Liu Bei declared himself emperor too and established the state of Shu Han; he claimed that his intention was to keep the Han dynasty's lineage alive. He changed the reign year and made Zhuge Liang his chancellor and Xu Jing his minister over the masses. He established a bureaucracy and an ancestral temple where he offered sacrifices to Emperor Gao. He designated Lady Wu as his empress and made his son Liu Shan as crown prince. Later, he named his son Liu Yong prince of Lu and his other son Liu Li prince of Liang.

Defeat and death (221-223)

In the autumn of 222, Liu Bei personally led an army to attack Sun Quan to avenge Guan Yu and retake his lost territories in Jing Province, while leaving Zhuge Liang in charge of state affairs in Chengdu. Sun Quan sent a letter seeking for peace but Liu Bei refused. Even though Zhang Fei was murdered by his subordinates during the onset of the battle, Liu Bei was still able to achieve initial victories against the Sun commandants stationed at Wu and Zigui until Lu Xun, the frontline commander of Sun Quan's forces, ordered a retreat to Yiling. Lu Xun held his position there and refused to engage the invaders.

By summer, the Shu troops were camped along their invasion route and had grown weary due to the hot weather. Liu Bei then moved his camp into a forest for shade and ordered Huang Quan to lead a portion of his navy to camp just outside the forest. Knowing that his enemy was not expecting a sudden strike, Lu Xun ordered a counterattack and set fire to the Shu camps linked to each other by wooden fences. 40 camps of Liu Bei's expedition force were destroyed in the fire attack and the remaining troops were defeated and forced to flee west to Ma'an Hills (northwest of Yiling), where they set up a defence. Lu Xun caught up with and besieged Liu Bei there before his men could recuperate. Liu Bei managed to escape overnight to Baidicheng by ordering his men to discard their armour and set them aflame to form a fire blockade. Lu Xun was unable to overcome the blockade and did not press any further attack. Eventually because of Cao Pi's invasion of Wu, Lu Xun and Liu Bei renewed their alliance.

Liu Bei stayed in Baidicheng until his death in spring of 223. Sun Quan heard that Liu Bei was in Baidi and sent an envoy for peace, Liu Bei accepted and had Zhong Wei (宗玮) sent in response. When Huang Yuan (黄元) administrator of Hanjia heard that Liu Bei was ill, he rebelled because he feared that after his death, his bad relation with Zhuge Liang would bring him problems. He was defeated by Cheng Hu (陈曶) and executed.

Mostly all of his longterm closest officials were passed on and he was shamed by his defeat. Liu refused to return to his capital in Chengdu, ate poorly, drank often and neglected his health, his oncoming death was pronounced. On his deathbed, he named Zhuge Liang and Li Yan as regents to support Liu Shan and encouraged his sons to live well and do right.

Liu Bei's posthumous decree to Liu Shan was as such: When he was near death, he told his son Liu Yong to treat with his brothers the chancellor as a father and do their utmost to help him.

His body was brought back to Chengdu and entombed at Huiling (惠陵; southern suburb of present-day Chengdu) four months later. Liu Bei was given the posthumous name Zhaolie. Liu Shan succeeded him as the emperor of Shu Han, while Zhuge Liang later solidified peace with Sun Quan and rebuilt the old Sun–Liu alliance against Cao Pi formally.

Appraisal

Chen Shou, once a subject of Shu and the historian who wrote Liu Bei's biography in the Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi), appraised Liu Bei as follows:

Chang Qu, historian and compiler of the Chronicles of Huayang in the 4th-century later used by Pei Songzhi in his annotations to the historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi) also gave his appraisal of Liu Bei:

However, the opinions of modern historians are more negative. As Rafe de Crespigny writes in Fire over Luoyang: A History of the Later Han Dynasty 23–220 AD:

Rafe de Crespigny also gave a more neutral appraisal of Liu Bei in A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD):

Family and descendants

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms

Romance of the Three Kingdoms is a 14th-century historical novel which romanticises the historical figures and events before and during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Written by Luo Guanzhong more than 1,000 years after the Three Kingdoms period, the novel incorporates many popular folklore and opera scripts into the character of Liu Bei, portraying him as a benevolent and righteous leader, endowed with charismatic potency (called de 德 in Chinese) who builds his state on the basis of Confucian values. This is in line with the historical background of the times during which the novel was written. Furthermore, the novel emphasises that Liu Bei was related, however distantly, to the imperial family of the Han dynasty, thus favouring another argument for the legitimacy of Liu Bei's reign.

Romance of the Three Kingdoms gives additional features Liu Bei's physical appearance. It mentions that Liu Bei is seven chi and five cun tall, with ears so large that they touch his shoulders and that he can even see them, long arms that extend beyond his knees, a fair and jade like face, and lips so red that it seems as though he is wearing lipstick. He wields a pair of double edged swords called shuang gu jian.

See the following for some fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms involving Liu Bei:

• Oath of the Peach Garden

• Battle of Hulao Pass

• List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Three visits to the thatched cottage

• List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Liu Bei's horse leaps across the Tan Stream

• List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Liu Bei and Lady Sun's marriage

• Battle of Xiaoting#In fiction

General worship of Liu Bei

Liu Bei is worshipped as the patron of shoemakers in Chengdu, which is also known as the "City of Shoes" as more than 80 million pairs of shoes totalling five billion yuan in sales are manufactured there annually. It is said that in 1845, during the reign of the Daoguang Emperor in the Qing dynasty, the shoemakers guild in Chengdu, who called themselves "disciples of Liu Bei", sponsored the construction of the Sanyi Temple in Liu Bei's honour. After being relocated many times, the temple can be found in Wuhou District today.

Since the Chinese government loosened its control on religious practices in recent years, the worship of Liu Bei among shoemakers has again gained popularity in Chengdu. In 2005, a large procession was carried out in front of the Sanyi Temple to commemorate Liu Bei — the first such event since the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949.

A commentary carried by the Yangtse Evening Post criticised such practice as mere commercial gimmickry to exploit the fame of Liu Bei. It argued that although Liu Bei sold straw-woven shoes and mats for a living when he was young, he was hardly the inventor of shoes. According to legend, it was Yu Ze who made the first pairs of shoes with softwood during the time of the Yellow Emperor. However, the criticism did not dampen the enthusiastic shoe industry owners in their decision to erect a statue of Liu Bei in the West China Shoe Center Industrial Zone, which was still under construction in Wuhou District as of August 2005.

In popular culture

Film and television

Notable actors who have portrayed Liu Bei in films and television series include: Sun Yanjun in Romance of the Three Kingdoms (1994); Chang Fu-chien in Guan Gong (1996); Elliot Ngok in Three Kingdoms: Resurrection of the Dragon (2008); You Yong in Red Cliff (2008–09); Yu Hewei in Three Kingdoms (2010); Alex Fong in The Lost Bladesman (2011); Yan Yikuan in God of War, Zhao Yun (2016); Tony Yang in Dynasty Warriors (2019).

Card games

In the collectible card game Magic: The Gathering there is a card named "Liu Bei, Lord of Shu" in the Portal Three Kingdoms set. In the selection of hero cards in the Chinese card game San Guo Sha, there is also a "Liu Bei" card that players can select at the beginning of the game.

Video games

Liu Bei is featured as a playable character in all instalments of Koei's video game series Dynasty Warriors, as well as Warriors Orochi, a crossover between Dynasty Warriors and Samurai Warriors. He also appears in other Koei video game series such as the Romance of the Three Kingdoms series and Kessen II.

Liu Bei is the protagonist in Destiny of an Emperor, a RPG on the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). Released in the United States by Capcom in 1989, the game also loosely follows the plot of the novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

Liu Bei's armour (based on the designs appearing in the Dynasty Warriors series) is available in the MMORPG MapleStory. Also featured are Cao Cao, Guan Yu, Zhuge Liang, Sun Quan, and Diaochan's designs.

Liu Bei is featured in the sequel to Level-5's game and anime Inazuma Eleven GO, Chrono Stone, as well as Cao Cao, Zhuge Liang, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei.

Liu Bei is featured as a "monster" in Puzzle & Dragons as part of the Three Kingdoms God Series, along with the Two Qiaos, Cao Cao, Lü Bu, Guan Yu, and many others.

He is also featured as one of the available warlords that the player can choose from in Creative Assembly's game Total War: Three Kingdoms.

生平

家世背景

刘备是汉景帝第九子中山靖王刘胜之子刘贞的后代，而裴松之三国志注所引《典略》记载，刘备为「临邑侯枝属」。祖父名雄，父亲名弘，世代皆仕于州郡，祖父刘雄曾被推举为孝廉，官至东郡范县县令。世居郦亭楼桑里。

少时经历

刘弘在刘备少时已逝，刘备便与母亲贩卖草鞋、织草席为业。家里房舍的东南角的围篱上有种植桑树，高五丈馀，从远处观看像是一台皇帝的车顶，路过的人皆讶异此树的非凡，或说此家必当出贵人。刘备小时候与家族中年龄相近的小孩在树下游戏时，曾说：「长大之后，我必乘坐车盖像这桑树一样大的马车。」他的叔父刘子敬说：「汝勿妄语，灭吾门也！」刘备15岁时，刘备母亲要他负笈外出，与同宗刘德然、辽西公孙瓒等人，同入当代大儒卢植门下学习。

刘德然之父刘元起常资助刘备，所给钱物与自己儿子刘德然等同。刘元起的妻子不忿，骂道：「又不是一家人，为何总资助他！」元起回答：「我刘家能有此儿，非一般人。」公孙瓒与刘备结为好友，公孙瓒较年长，刘备以兄事之。

刘备虽然投入卢植门下，但却不甚喜欢读书，反倒喜欢评论犬马、音乐、华美的衣服。身长七尺五寸（约173公分，汉时一尺约为23.1公分），垂手下膝，有一对招风大耳，不需揽镜自照，眼可自见其耳。平时少说话，喜怒不形于色。由于个性善于待人，加上其行事风格酷似先祖刘邦，好交结豪侠义士，故当地有很多年轻人都争相趋附他，时人亦评为有高祖之风。中山大商人张世平、苏双等亦为此常给刘备金钱与物资上的帮助，刘备由是得以纠合部下，发展组织。

参与义军

184年（23岁），黄巾之乱爆发，各州郡皆有人民组织义军讨伐。刘备率领耿雍、关羽、张飞、牵招及一干下属跟随邹靖讨伐黄巾军，立下战功，被任为安喜尉（一说是参与镇压张纯叛乱后被任命为安喜尉）。后来，汉室有令：「如因军功而成为长吏的人，都要经过汰选。」督邮到安喜要把刘备资遣，刘备知道消息后，到督邮入住的驿站休息房舍求见，督邮却声称生病而不肯相见，刘备因此感到不悦，便径直闯入房舍，将督邮困绑，杖打二百下，然后弃官逃亡。

后来，大将军何进派都尉毌丘毅到丹杨募兵，刘备也在途中加入，到下邳时与盗贼力战有功，被任为下密县丞，然不久又辞官。

191年（30岁），刘备时任高唐令，但被盗贼击败而投奔公孙瓒。公孙瓒随即上表，保奏刘备为别部司马，任为平原令、平原相。刘备在平原，外御贼寇，在内则屯粮分发给百姓，就算是没有官职的人都可与他一起就座用餐，从来不会排斥别人。平原郡的郡民刘平一直以来都看不起刘备，不服刘备的治理，便唆使刺客前去暗杀刘备。刘备对于此事毫不知情，以为刺客是普通人，就对刺客关怀备至、十分礼遇，深受感动的刺客不忍杀害刘备，只得坦露实情然后离去。刘备治理平原郡期间广树恩德，深得人心。

入主徐州

黄巾馀党管亥率众军攻打北海郡，北海相孔融被大军所围，情势危急，便派太史慈突围向刘备求救。太史慈对刘备说：「我太史慈只是东莱一个无名之人。北海相孔融和我并不是有著骨肉相连的亲族，也称不上是志同道合的同乡朋友，只是他认为我有前途而看重我，所以我有为他分担灾祸、共赴患难之义理。现在管亥起兵扰境，包围北海城，城内居民旁徨无助，危在旦夕。孔融大人听说刘备大人有仁义之名，能救人之危难急迫。因此盼望著能得到您的帮助，命令我突破管亥兵众的包围，冒著万死无生的可能，来向刘备大人求助，惟有借重您的力量，方能使北海城脱危。」刘备惊讶地答道：「北海相孔融居然知道世间有我刘备啊！」便立即派三千精兵随太史慈去北海救援。黄巾军闻知援军至，都四散而逃，孔融逐得以解围。后因袁绍攻公孙瓒，刘备遂与青州刺史田楷回师支援。

193年（32岁），曹操征讨徐州，徐州牧陶谦败退，曹操在徐州屠城。陶谦遗使告急于田楷，田楷与刘备俱前往相救。当时刘备自有士兵千馀人及幽州乌桓搀杂胡族骑兵，又略得饥民数千人。既到，与陶谦将领曹豹屯在郯东，但被曹操击败。后曹操因张邈、陈宫叛变欲助吕布入主兖州而撤退，陶谦以丹杨兵四千人给刘备，刘备遂离开田楷，转而依附陶谦。陶谦表刘备为豫州刺史，屯兵于小沛。

194年（33岁），陶谦病重，对别驾从事麋竺说：「非刘备不能安此州也。」陶谦死后，麋竺便率徐州人民迎刘备入主徐州，刘备未敢当。下邳陈登对刘备说：「现今汉室渐趋衰败，海内倾覆，立功名、立事业，就在于今日。本州殷实富足，户口百万，希望屈就使君亲临抚牧本州事务。」刘备未敢接受，推辞说：「袁公路就近在寿春，此人家族四代中有五人列位三公，海内民心所归，你可以徐州给与他。」陈登答：「袁术骄纵横豪，不是治理乱局之主。现在希望您使君合共步兵骑兵十万，对上可以匡扶主上、救济人民，成就像春秋五霸之功业；对下可以割地自守、保境安民，写下功业于竹帛上。若不见听使君答许，在下亦未敢听从使君。」

北海相孔融对刘备劝道：「袁公路岂是因忧虑国事而忘却家庭之人？袁家纵然四世三公，却早已都是墓中枯骨了，不足在意。今日之事，是百姓因你贤能而推举你，天意让你取徐州而你不取，将来后悔可就迟了。」刘备遂领徐州牧。

转战吕布

195年（34岁），吕布被曹操打败来投靠，刘备善待礼遇他。吕布见刘备，极为尊敬地说：「我与你同为边地出身的人，我见关东诸侯起兵，想要诛杀董卓。后来我杀董卓，被乱军逼迫而向东走，关东诸将却没有一个人愿意安置我不说，还有人想要杀死我。」于是吕布请刘备于帐中坐，并令妻子行礼，酌酒饮宴，擅自称呼刘备为其弟，刘备听了吕布这些言论，表面上虽不当一回事，但心里却对其有所戒备，最后刘备让吕布屯于小沛驻扎。

建安元年（196年，35岁），袁术来攻徐州，刘备于盱眙、淮阴抵抗袁军。曹操上表朝廷，刘备成为镇东将军，封为宜城亭侯。

刘备与袁术的大军相持一个月，大战之间彼此互有胜负。吕布乘下邳空虚，与下邳守将曹豹联系，趁机发动军变，赶走了张飞，进而占据下邳，反客为主，成为徐州实际上的掌权者。吕布掳获刘备妻子，而此时的刘备却转战海西。

东汉建安二年（197年36岁）夏天，杨奉、韩暹等贼军在徐、扬二州之间作恶，刘备率军与其决战，尽为刘备所斩首。后来，势孤力竭的刘备不得已向吕布求和，吕布归还其妻子，却没有归还徐州的主导权，刘备只好遗派关羽守下邳，并自行还军小沛，然后集合兵马，又得万馀人。

吕布得知刘备重新召集了军队，嫌恶于此，便出尔反尔攻打刘备，刘备兵败，走投无路之下，只得归顺曹操。曹操相当厚待刘备，以其为豫州牧。刘备与曹操一同返回许都后，被任命为左将军。

当时，刘备来投奔曹操的时候，曹操手下的谋士程昱就曾警告：「观刘备有雄才而甚得众心，终不为人下。」劝曹操趁早杀掉刘备，以免后患，但曹操认为当时天下未定、群雄四起，正是收英雄之时，不可因为刘备一人而失去天下之心。

(198年37岁）春天，吕布派人携金到河内买马，被刘备派兵截取。吕布于是派高顺、张辽等攻打刘备，虽然曹操曾派夏侯敦前往救援，但仍旧败阵，于是刘备妻子又再度被吕布所掳。

十月，曹操亲自东征，刘备在梁国界中与曹操会师，两人合兵成功消灭了吕布，并将其活捉。刘备厌恶吕布反覆无常、恩将仇报的事情，遂在吕布向曹操请降以求活命时，拿过去丁原、董卓的例子告诫曹操，于是吕布终被绞杀于白门楼下。

刘备复得妻子，但却未再重览徐州大权，而是跟从曹操还师许都。曹操上表刘备为左将军，对其礼之愈重，出则同车、坐则同席。

对抗曹操

汉献帝因曹操挟天子以令诸侯，发出衣带诏令其岳父董承伺机诛杀曹操，刘备尚未加入。

一日，曹操在花园宴请刘备，为了试探刘备对自己的忠诚度，席间曹操对刘备说：「今天下英雄，唯使君与操耳。本初之徒，不足数也。（当今天下，唯独你我二人才称得上是英雄，像袁绍这类人，不过徒有虚名之辈，不足挂齿。）」刘备听了，知道曹操对自己有戒心，不禁一震，筷子从手中掉落。此时刚好打雷，刘备便对曹操说：「『圣人迅雷风烈必变』，良有以也。一震之威，乃可至于此也！（『即使是圣人，遇见打雷时也会改变表情』确有原因。一声雷鸣，乃可以令我变成如此！）」《华阳国志》记载当时碰巧雷声大作，刘备便把自己的失态归咎于雷鸣。经此事后，刘备决定加入董承。此外刘备在许都时曾带著关羽与曹操一起打猎。在打猎关羽趁没人时劝说刘备杀死曹操，但刘备拒绝。不久，在南方失利的袁术想北投袁绍，刘备便以此为藉口，向曹操借兵出击袁术，趁机摆脱曹操的控制。曹操派他督朱灵、路招攻击袁术，但军未到，袁术已病死。

199年（38岁），刘备遣朱灵、路招占据下邳。200年（39岁），衣带诏事件败露，董承与其他相关人士被杀。刘备知道事情有变，便杀死徐州刺史车胄，然后留关羽守下邳，自己回守小沛，做好与曹操公然对决的准备。

另一方面，刘备派遣孙乾与袁绍联合，打出对抗曹操的名目。曹操曾派刘岱、王忠领军攻打刘备，但反被刘备击破。同时，东海昌霸反叛，当地郡县多有人投靠刘备，刘备军再次聚起数万人，并连同多个地方势力一起反曹。

曹操后悔没早杀刘备，决定亲自东征刘备，虽然曹军中将领多认为盘据河北的袁绍才是大敌，但曹操却觉得刘备是英杰，若不先行讨伐，久后必酿大祸，而曹操帐下的谋士郭嘉亦赞同曹操的决定。

刘备被曹军大败，小沛被占。曹操虏获了刘备的妻子，并生擒关羽、夏侯博。刘备率败军逃至青州，由当时的青州刺史袁谭亲自迎接，并报知其父袁绍，袁绍以超出规格的待遇，亲自出邺城200里迎接刘备的到来。

刘备泄露曹操曾经对自己说的密言予袁绍，袁绍才知道曹操原来有针对自己的阴谋，曹操知道之后很生气，咬舌至流血，以告诫众人。刘备待了一个多月后，以前的部下又重新聚会。不久，曹操与袁绍于官渡交战，汝南郡黄巾馀军刘辟等响应袁绍叛曹，袁绍便派刘备率军与刘辟会合。曹操派曹仁攻打汝南，刘备惟有再次还军袁绍。

当时，刘备看出了袁绍性格上的缺陷，认为还是曹军会获胜，便想方设法离开袁绍，于是说服袁绍应南连刘表，袁绍同意，又派刘备到汝南与龚都会合。曹操另派蔡阳率军攻打刘备，但反为刘备所破，蔡阳亦被刘备所杀。其后不久，曹操终于官渡之战大败袁绍。

建安六年（201年40岁），曹操又出兵南击刘备，刘备放弃汝南，入荆州投靠刘表。

刘备派麋竺、孙乾先与刘表会面。刘备到达荆州，受到刘表热情的接待。刘表接纳刘备后，便为他增加兵马，命刘备屯兵于新野，守卫荆州北大门。

建安七年（202年42岁），袁绍去世后，曹操接著率军与袁尚、袁谭大战于黎阳。此时许昌空虚，刘备奉刘表命令北伐曹操。曹将夏侯敦、于禁、李典等人率军南下，刘备奉命北上迎敌。在新野北博望，刘备设好伏兵以后，便烧毁营屯假装惧敌退却。夏侯敦让李典留守，自己和于禁追击，追到博望，刘备伏兵将夏侯敦杀得大败，曹军损失惨重，向北退走。刘备在荆州声望日高，引起刘表疑心刘备，处处戒备。

建安十二年（207年46岁），曹操基本统一黄河流域之后，开始北上征伐北方乌丸，刘备力劝刘表乘机袭取许都，刘表没有采纳刘备建议。曹操北征乌丸，分别追击袁尚、袁熙等袁氏馀部。

刘备在荆州几年，知道水镜先生就是司马徽，便前去请教世事。刘备一直图谋发展自己的势力，得知水镜先生是当地名士。司马徽知道刘备来意，便对他说：「一个儒生见识浅俗之士，岂会认识时势事务？认识时势事务者，是那些英俊豪杰。其中自有卧龙（诸葛亮）、凤雏（庞统）。」诸葛亮又受徐庶推荐，刘备希望徐庶引诸葛亮来见，但徐庶却建议：「此人可就见，不可屈致也。将军宜枉驾顾之。（此人只能前去拜谒，不可委屈他前来。将军宜枉屈尊驾以顾望。）」

南下之危

207年（46岁），刘备三顾茅庐，问计于诸葛亮：「汉室倾颓，奸臣窃命，主上蒙尘。孤不度德量力，欲信大义于天下，而智术浅短，遂用猖獗，至于今日。然志犹未已，君谓计将安出？（汉室衰败，奸臣掌权，使天子（汉献帝）蒙受苦难。我不自量德行与能力，欲伸张大义于天下，然而智术浅薄，时至今日，一无所成。然则志向仍未减，先生可以出谋画策吗？）」诸葛亮遂向他陈述三分天下之计，分析此时曹操挟天子而令诸侯，此诚不可与争锋；孙权据有江东，可以为援而不可图；又详述荆州用武之国、战略要地，而其主刘表不能守，此恐怕是上天赐予刘备；益州是汉高祖成就帝业之地，其主刘璋暗弱；更建议刘备等待时局有变，由荆州、益州进攻中原。这篇论说后世称为《隆中对》，是此后数十年刘备和蜀汉基本国策。。诸葛亮刚从隆中出来，受到刘备重视，只是由于刘备与自己情好日密，就引得「关羽、张飞等不悦」，最后还是刘备出来说：「孤之有孔明，犹鱼之有水也。愿诸君勿复言。（我有孔明，犹如鱼得到水。但愿诸君别在说了。）」；关羽、张飞才作罢。刘备在荆州扩军，诸葛亮筹措军需，何宇度《益部谈资》记载：「先主寓荆州。从南阳大姓晁氏贷钱千𦻼，以为军需。诸葛孔明作保，券至宋犹存。」

208年（47岁），曹操南下，时刘备屯于樊城。八月刘表病卒，次子刘琮继任荆州牧，遣使曹操举州投降。起初刘备不知刘琮决定投降，得知时曹军尚在宛县，尚未到达新野，刘备连忙弃城南撤。。在南渡汉水至襄阳时，诸葛亮曾劝刘备攻刘琮夺襄阳，但刘备不忍心进攻刘表之子，没有攻打襄阳，只是在城下驻马高呼刘琮出来相见，只来到刘表墓前祭奠，涕泣拜辞而去。刘备一行南下，荆州官吏百姓加入，走到当阳时，人数达10馀万，辎重数千辆，一日只能走10几里。惟有另派关羽乘数百艘船，直到江陵。有人向刘备进言：「宜速行保江陵，今虽拥大众，披甲者少，若曹公兵至，何以拒之？（适宜速行而保江陵，现今虽然拥有很多随行者，但士兵很少，若曹操军追至，如何抵抗？）」刘备答道：「夫济大事必以人为本，今人归吾，吾何忍弃去！（做大事必以人为本，现今人众归附于我，我又如何忍心离弃而去！）」

当时江陵贮有刘表的大量粮储、器械等军实，曹操深怕刘备先占领江陵，就抛弃辎重，以轻军急行到襄阳。曹操听闻刘备军已离开襄阳，与曹纯等领五千精骑急追，一日一夜疾行三百馀里。曹军五千轻骑奔至当阳长阪坡追上刘备一行，刘备弃妻子，与诸葛亮、张飞、赵云等数十骑走，10馀万众土崩瓦解，曹军大举擒获刘备人众辎重，张飞率20骑拒后，与曹兵边打边退。孙权之前派出鲁肃来打探消息，在当阳长阪迎堵刘备。长阪会面后，鲁肃随刘备向东南斜趋汉津，在此适逢与关羽水军会合，渡过沔水后向江夏进发。江夏太守刘琦闻刘备军到来，率军前去迎接，将刘备迎到夏口。此后，鲁肃返回江东覆命，刘备进至樊口，同时派诸葛亮随鲁肃出使孙权，与孙权结盟。

孙权正式任命周瑜为左都督，程普为右都督，鲁肃为赞军校尉，率三万水军，与诸葛亮一起溯江西上，与樊口刘备军会合。建安十三年冬，曹操亲率20馀万大军从江陵顺江东下，讨伐孙权。黄盖便向周瑜建议说：「今寇众我寡，难与持久。然观操军船舰首尾相接，可烧而走也。」十二月，孙刘联军在赤壁至乌林一线以火攻大破曹军，更追至南郡，曹操败北。曹操一到江陵，便部署征南将军曹仁、横野将军徐晃守江陵，折冲将军乐进守襄阳，曹操撤回北方。

占荆夺蜀

赤壁之战后，刘备撤出江陵战斗，全力占据荆州江南四郡，先上表汉帝奏请刘琦为荆州刺史，两万大军南下，武陵太守金旋献城、长沙太守韩玄迎降、桂阳太守赵范让位、零陵太守刘度稽颡。庐江人雷绪也率部曲数万人投效。建安十三年（208年48岁）十二月，荆州江南四郡尽为刘备所占领。刘琦死，群下推刘备为荆州牧，刘备即遣诸葛亮为军师中郎将，督令零陵、桂阳、长沙三郡，收其租赋，以供军实，又以关羽为襄阳太守（未实领）、荡寇将军驻江北，张飞为宜都太守、征虏将军在南郡，赵云为偏将军领桂阳太守。廖立为长沙太守，郝普为零陵太守，向朗督秭归、夷道、巫县、夷陵四县军民事。刘备治于公安。而孙权为与刘备建立更巩固的关系，在周瑜死后便依鲁肃之策将南郡的江陵及临江郡借给刘备，再分部份长沙郡给他，以及确认刘备占有武陵和桂阳两郡，遂提出将其妹嫁予刘备，史称孙夫人。刘备到京口见孙权，关系表现亲密、宽度。时刘备拥有荆州大部份属地，又收取荆襄名士庞统和马良，整日操练人马，伺机南征北伐。

以后，孙权曾派使希望与刘备一起取益州，刘备本想答应，因东吴不可能越荆州而有蜀，蜀地就可据为己有。但荆州主簿殷观却反对：「若为吴先驱，进未能克蜀，退为吴所乘，即事去矣。今但可然赞其伐蜀，而自说新据诸郡，未可兴动，吴必不敢越我而独取蜀。如此进退之计，可以收吴、蜀之利。（若我们为吴开路，前进未必能攻克蜀地，后退可能为吴乘虚而入，那时即大势而去。现今但可以赞同他伐蜀，而自己推却说刚占据荆南诸郡，未能兴兵妄动，吴必定不敢越过我境而单独取蜀。依照此进退得宜之计谋，便可以收吴、蜀两地之利。）」刘备依从其计，孙权果然终辍计划。殷观遂升迁为别驾从事。

建安十六年（211年51岁）三月，曹操下令锺繇率军西征汉中张鲁，让夏侯渊出河东与锺繇相会。益州牧刘璋遥闻曹操将遗锺繇等向汉中讨张鲁，内心怀有恐惧。别驾从事蜀郡张松说服刘璋称：「曹操兵强，无敌于天下，若因张鲁之资源用以攻取益州土地，谁能抵御？」刘璋说：「我固然担忧，而未有计。」张松说：「刘备，使君之宗室，而且是曹操之深仇，善于用兵，若使之讨伐张鲁，张鲁必可攻破。张鲁攻破，则益州强大，曹操虽来，也无能为力。」在张松出言下，益州牧刘璋采纳请刘备入蜀之意见，并派军议校尉法正为使，孟达为副，各领兵2,000人，前往荆州邀请刘备入蜀助攻张鲁。刘备亲自统帅进军益州，庞统任军师中郎将，将领黄忠、魏延、卓膺等辅助刘备。刘备与庞统一同进入益州。诸葛亮、关羽、张飞、赵云、刘封、孟达、马良等留在荆州。然而刘备要知道蜀中的阔狭，兵器、府库、人马多少及多个要害之地的远近，便向二人请教，张松、法正都一一详述，更画出地图指示山川所在，所以刘备知道益州内情。

到达涪城，刘璋亲自出迎，相见甚欢。张松、法正及庞统都提议刘备可乘机杀了刘璋，当时庞统主张趁此机会，擒住刘璋。刘备以初来到蜀地，人心尚未信服，不宜轻举妄动为由，未采纳庞统建言。刘璋推荐刘备行大司马，领司隶校尉，刘备又推荐刘璋行镇西大将军，领益州牧。刘璋配给刘备士兵，及督白水军，令他攻击张鲁。刘备当时总计有三万多人，车甲、器械、资货甚多。但刘备却到葭萌时，未出兵，而是树立恩德，收买民心。

建安十七年（212年51岁）冬十月，曹操出兵攻打孙权，孙权向刘备告急，刘备对刘璋说欲还救荆州有急。刘备请求刘璋拨出兵士万人与军事物资。但刘璋只允诺给予四千兵马，其馀物资仅提供一半。刘备受此激怒，忿忿说道：「吾为益州征强敌，师徒勤瘁，不遑宁居；今积帑藏之财而吝于赏功，望士大夫为出死力战，其可得乎！（我为了益州征讨强敌，军队勤瘁，无暇休息；现今刘璋积存起财富而不用于赏功，却希望士大夫能为他出力死战，这又怎可能！）」当时张松不知刘备用意，写信质问：「今大事垂可成立，如何释此去乎（眼看就要大事底定，为何抛下一切离去）？」结果被其兄张肃据此告密，张松遭到处死，导致刘备与刘璋关系恶化。十二月，刘备与刘璋决裂。刘备依庞统提出的计谋，召白水关守将杨怀、高沛到来并将其斩杀。另外又派黄忠、卓膺率军攻刘璋，一路占领至涪城。刘璋连忙派出刘璝、冷苞、张任、邓贤、中郎将吴懿等与对抗刘备，皆破败，退保绵竹，吴懿至刘备军前投降，拜为讨逆将军。刘璋后遣护军李严、参军费观督绵竹军拒刘备，两人阵前倒戈亦率众投降，同拜裨将军，刘备军势强，分军平定各郡县。但刘备军却被雒城守将刘循阻挡攻势。从建安十八年建安十九年，刘备围攻雒城将近一年，庞统被流矢射中，重创身亡。张飞、赵云、刘封等随诸葛亮率军入蜀，关羽留下镇守荆州，马良、麋芳、士仁、廖化协助关羽镇守荆州。建安十九年（214年54岁）夏，诸葛亮入蜀援军溯江而上。诸葛亮分兵进攻成都：张飞从垫江北上直取巴西郡治阆中，从北面攻成都；赵云从长江西攻取江阳北上犍为郡治武阳，从南面攻成都；诸葛亮亲自沿涪江取德阳，直取成都。

214年夏天（53岁），雒城终被攻破。李恢受刘备派遣到汉中与马超交好，马超正想离开张鲁，刘备暗暗派出人马与马超兵众会合，马超率领大队人马开到成都城北屯驻。关羽听说马超归降备，便写信给诸葛亮，问马超才能可与谁相比，诸葛亮回信说：「马超文武兼备，气概雄烈，过于常人，可称得上一世之豪杰，是黥布、彭越一流之人物，可以与张飞相提并论，但是赶不上美髯公你超逸绝群。」刘备乘势率汉军进围成都数十日。刘备派简雍进入成都劝说刘璋投降，刘璋与简雍「同舆而载，出城归命」；刘璋向刘备缴械投降，益州易主，归属刘备。由于蜀中繁盛、安乐，刘备便设宴大慰劳士卒，又取蜀城中的金银，分赐将士，还其谷帛。刘备皆处之显任，尽其器能，有志之士，无不竞劝，益州之民，是以大和。有议论劝刘备将成都城中房舍及城外的田地、桑园分赐给诸将，但赵云反驳说：「从前汉朝大将霍去病曾说过『匈奴未灭，无用家为』，何况现在国贼不只像匈奴只有一个，还不到可以安定下来的时候，必须等到天下的乱贼都平定之后，才可让众人返回家乡去种植桑梓，回归故土去耕作田地，这样才是正道。益州的人民是第一次遭遇到战争，应该将田宅房产归还给百姓，先让他们安居乐业，然后才能叫他们服傜役、缴税，也才能得到益州的民心。」刘备便听从赵云的建议，有志之士便都纷纷来投靠刘备。

汉中之争

在建安二十年（215年54岁）三月，曹操征伐汉中，七月破南郑，十一月最终降服张鲁，抢在刘备之前占有汉中。

孙权以刘备已得益州，要胁分治荆州，刘备答道：「须得凉州，当以荆州相与。」孙权忿恨，乃派遣吕蒙施袭，争夺长沙、零陵、桂阳三郡。刘备听闻消息，放下曹操，亲自率五万大军到公安，同时下令关羽进军益阳，与孙权军对峙。

之后，曹操破张鲁，严重威胁到蜀地门户。刘备派使者与孙权议和，孙权派诸葛瑾答覆刘备，双方最终决定和好。为尽快解决荆州问题，回兵保卫益州，刘备以湘水为界，将江夏、长沙、桂阳三郡划给孙吴。而南郡、零陵、武陵以西则属刘备所有，孙权将已占领的零陵还给刘备，刘备回军江州。

八月，孙权在东线进攻合肥，曹将张辽、李典据城抵抗，击退孙权。十一月，张鲁逃遁至巴西，偏将军黄权对刘备说：「若失汉中，则三巴不振，此为割蜀之股臂也。」因此刘备遣黄权率兵迎向张鲁，但张鲁已降曹操。曹操派夏侯渊、张合屯兵汉中，数次武力侵犯巴郡边界。刘备令张飞进兵宕渠，与张合等于瓦口争战，大破张合等众。张合收兵还退南郑。翌年二月，曹操留夏侯渊、张合镇守汉中，自己回邺城。

建安二十三年（218年57岁），刘备采法正劝谏，率军进攻汉中。诸葛亮镇守成都，刘备亲率大军征汉中，法正随从参谋军机，赵云、黄忠、魏延、张飞、马超、吴兰等从征，曹操、刘备争夺汉中之战开始。但汉军先头部队却被曹军打败。刘备一路直攻汉中，进兵至阳平关与夏侯渊、张合等曹军对峙，为保证道路畅通，刘备派大将陈式率十馀营兵士驻扎在马呜阁道，曹将夏侯渊派大将徐晃袭击陈兵，陈式军被打败，士兵纷纷跳入山谷，伤亡惨重。曹操下令赐徐晃节杖，并说：「此阁道，汉中之险要喉也。刘备欲断绝外内，以取汉中。将军一举，克夺贼计，善之善者也。」

刘备「急书发益州兵」，诸葛亮与从事杨洪商议对策，杨洪说：「汉中则益州咽喉，存亡之机会，若无汉中则无蜀矣，此家门之祸也。方今之事，男子当战，女子当运，发兵何疑」；诸葛亮非常看重杨洪见识，当即发兵支援汉中前线。

从建安二十二年（217年）刘备出兵起，双方在汉中僵持一年多，建安二十四年（219年）春刘备听从法正计策，从阳平南渡沔水，依定军山恃险安营。夏侯渊带少数兵力争夺定军山营地，法正对刘备说：「可击矣」；刘备便命黄忠乘高鼓噪攻之，居高临下，冲入敌阵，杀死夏侯渊。一举斩杀了夏侯渊及曹操所置的益州刺史赵顒等。

建安二十四年三月(219年58岁)，曹操自长安率兵经褒斜谷赶往汉中，刘备说：「曹公虽来，无能为也，我必有汉川矣。」

刘备在险处死守，不与曹军交战。诸葛亮亲坐益州，将人力、物力及时补充到刘备军中。夏五月，曹操引兵撤出汉中，汉中归刘备所有。

另一方面，刘备又遣刘封、孟达、李严等进攻上庸等东三郡，房陵太守蒯祺被杀，上庸及西城守将申耽及申仪兄弟等见曹操率军返回中原，抵抗无望便开城投降。

秋七月，马超、庞羲、射援、诸葛亮、关羽、张飞、黄忠、法正、李严等120人联名上表刘备为汉中王。刘备于沔阳设置祭坛场地，陈兵列众、群臣陪位、宣读奏讫，自立汉中王，后还治成都。

临去前，刘备又提拔魏延为都督汉中太守，坐镇汉中以防曹魏。回到成都的刘备建起馆舍，修筑亭障，从成都至白水关，四百馀区。关羽率军从江陵北上，发动襄樊战役。

曹操得知樊城告急，派遣于禁增援。于禁七军火速增援曹仁，关羽与于禁交锋，时至八月，大雨滂沱，山洪暴发，汉水骤涨，水淹七军，于禁束手就擒，部下几乎全部投降，副将庞德被活捉不降，最后被关羽所杀。

此时，孙权趁关羽出兵、荆州守备空虚之际，派吕蒙行白衣渡江，沿途拦截了关羽设立的烽火台。十月，吕蒙任征荆州大督，率兵西上，公安士仁、江陵麋芳开城投降。关羽回军江陵途中，陆逊任右护军、镇西将军屯驻夷陵，吕蒙任南郡太守驻江陵。关羽至当阳西保麦城，败走麦城后，士兵继续逃散，关羽身边只剩十馀骑。

十二月关羽被孙权大将潘璋部马忠捕杀，孙权将其首级送至洛阳曹操处。孙刘联盟正式决裂。

遗恨夷陵

建安二十五年（220年59岁）正月，曹操逝世，刘备也曾派遣韩冉奉书吊唁，「并致赙赠之礼」，但最后却失败。刘备一方面为了探取曹魏方面的动向，以准备伐吴战事，一方面冀望曹魏即便不相助伐吴，也能袖手旁观，遂以吊丧为名，但最后却被曹丕洞察其意，无果而终。三月改元延康，十月曹丕代汉称帝。十二月，当时有谣言指汉献帝刘协已被加害，刘备便穿丧服发丧，諡刘协为孝愍皇帝（但实际上刘协仍在世）。同年，法正、黄忠去世。

221年，群臣劝刘备登基为帝，刘备不答应，诸葛亮用耿纯游说刘秀登基故事劝刘备（光武帝刘秀登基时，同为汉室的更始帝刘玄仍在世，此后绿林军攻破长安杀刘玄，此后刘秀建东汉），刘备才决定接受群臣拥立，四月初六在成都武担山之南接受皇帝玺绶，改元章武。国号仍为「汉」，史称蜀汉。四月丙午日（5月15日），大赦天下，以诸葛亮为丞相，许靖为司徒。设置百官，建立宗庙，祭祀汉高祖以下。

五月，立皇后吴氏，刘禅为皇太子。六月，以刘永为鲁王，刘理为梁王。

魏文帝曹丕召集众臣讨论，侍中刘晔认为蜀汉一定要出兵攻打孙吴，理由是：「蜀虽狭弱，而备之谋欲以威武自强，势必用众以示其有馀。且关羽与备，义为君臣，恩犹父子；羽死不能为兴军报敌，于终始之分不足。」

七月，刘备不采纳赵云、刘巴、雍茂等人的劝告，执意发动战争。刘备率军沿江而下，讨伐东吴。

张飞被部下暗杀。但这不改刘备伐吴的念头。孙权先派人给蜀汉送信求和，又令诸葛亮哥哥诸葛谨致笺劝刘备息兵罢战，刘备一概拒绝。

孙权把国都从建业迁到武昌，以便指挥战争。起初，汉军气势如虹，不过吴将陆逊采以逸待劳兵法而战之，最终于章武二年（222年）大败汉军。

陆逊大败刘备，「杀其兵八万馀人，备仅以身免」。蜀汉多位将领战死。刘备退至秭归，赵云率兵到达白帝城，巴西太守阎芝派马忠率5千人马随后到达。刘备退到永安县。当时曹丕已经调集大军，准备讨伐孙权，孙权听闻刘备没往成都撤退，而是驻扎在离前线很近的白帝，甚为惧怕。章武二年十二月，孙权派太中大夫郑泉到白帝城见刘备，正式表示向蜀汉请和。刘备也遣太中大夫宗玮使吴，表示赞同蜀汉、东吴两国和好。

白帝托孤

当刘封失掉汉中东面三郡逃回成都后，诸葛亮劝刘备除掉刘封。同年，太傅许靖、尚书令刘巴、骠骑将军马超先后病逝。南中越夷高定曾向新道进攻，被李严打退。

汉嘉郡太守黄元听说刘备在永安病重，于章武二年十二月举兵反叛。

章武三年（223年62岁）二月，诸葛亮接到刘备诏书，带著刘永、刘理从成都来到永安。三月，黄元乘诸葛亮到永安见刘备之机，率军进攻临邛县，火烧临邛城。益州治中从事杨洪立即把黄元之动向报告给刘禅，刘禅派将军陈曶、郑绰进讨黄元。陈曶、郑绰两人在南安峡口生擒黄元，将其押回成都正法。

四月下旬，刘备对诸葛亮说：「君才十倍曹丕，必能安国，终定大事。若嗣子可辅，辅之；如其不才，君可自取。（你的才能是曹丕的十倍，必定能够安定国家，终可成就大事。如果嗣子（刘禅）可以辅助，便辅助他；如果他没有才干，你可以自取其位。）」诸葛亮涕泣说：「臣敢竭股肱之力，效忠贞之节，继之以死！（臣必定竭尽自己所有力量，报效忠贞之气节，继续至死为止！）」刘备又要刘禅和其他儿子「与丞相从事，事之如父。」。

刘备临终前，托孤于丞相诸葛亮，尚书令李严为副。临终时，与刘永说：「吾亡之后，汝兄弟父事丞相，令卿与丞相共事而已。（我死后，你们兄弟要对父亲般奉事丞相（诸葛亮），你们与丞相只是共事而已。）」四月廿四（6月10日）刘备崩逝于永安宫，享寿六十三岁。孙权派立信都尉冯熙出使蜀汉，吊唁刘备。诸葛亮上言赞扬刘备。五月癸巳日（6月21日），遗体自永安运返成都发丧，諡为昭烈皇帝。八月，入葬惠陵。

亦有郭沫若等学者认为由于条件所限，刘备就地下葬于今奉节县，并未归葬成都。

庙号争议

《三国志·先主传》中并没有记载刘备庙号。李慈铭怀疑刘备庙号烈祖是由刘渊所追尊。章学诚根据《三国志·先主传》中诸葛亮宣读的遗诏，指出刘备庙号是太宗。卢弼认为章学诚的说法不足据，如果刘备庙号太宗，《三国志》本传没有不记载的道理。郭善兵则认为刘备庙号缺失不能归咎于史书记载疏漏，而是受到郑玄礼学「一祖二宗与四亲庙」七庙学说影响所致。

特色

刘备喜怒不形于色，常以谦虚恭敬待人，深知「得人心者得天下」的道理，重视以宽仁厚德待人，与那些残民以逞、暴虐嗜杀的军阀判然有别，因此而争取到了人心。刘备不怎么喜欢读书，喜欢评马论犬、音乐和华美的衣物。

小时候，家中有棵大桑树，遥望见如同车盖，刘备与宗中小儿于树下玩耍时说过：「吾必当乘此羽葆盖车。（我必定会乘坐此羽饰华盖之车。）」叔父刘子敬听到后，不禁当下斥责他：「汝勿妄语，灭吾门也。（你不要胡说，会招来灭门之祸）」

刘备在部下声誉受损或是特殊的理由发生背叛的可能时往往站出来捍卫部下声誉和保护部下家眷，徐庶母被抓，庶泪崩辞别刘备、糜芳背叛，刘备对愧疚的糜竺说兄弟罪不相及、夷陵之败黄权不得已降魏，刘备依然善待其家人「孤负黄权，权不负孤也。」

由于刘备没有胡须，因此曾被张裕取笑；有一次，刘备与刘璋于涪县会面时，张裕时为璋从事在一旁陪坐，由于裕的胡须浓密，被刘备嘲笑说道：「过去吾在涿县时遇到好多姓毛的人，四方许多毛，涿县县令声称说：『许多毛（毛）绕涿（歜）而居』。」，但裕立刻反唇相讥：「过去某人当上党郡潞县长，后来升任为涿县县令，当他辞任归家时，有人写信给她，要是写了潞县就丢了涿县，而写上涿县又失去潞县，就写道『潞（露）涿（歜）君』。」由此反讥刘备，让刘备对张裕一直没什么好感。后在刘备攻汉中之前，张裕说会出师不利，但刘备仍照著既定计画出兵，结果刘备拿下汉中，不过两名大将吴兰、雷铜等也在此战中身亡，以致于刘备记恨张裕。某天，张裕私下对人说：「庚子年间（220年）会改朝换代；主公入主蜀地的九年后，也会再次失去蜀地，刘氏运气将会消尽。」谣言乱传，最终入刘备之耳，刘备不满张裕散布灭亡谣言，以张裕的话语没有应验，把他关入狱中。诸葛亮请求刘备宽恕他，刘备只说：「芳兰生门，不得不锄。」于是杀了张裕，弃尸于街头。

刘备死前告诫其子刘禅的遗诏，其言辞恳切，令人莫不动容。文中，刘备劝刘禅最重要的一句话，便是「勿以恶小而为之，勿以善小而不为。惟贤惟德，能服于人。」古人教子，常以德为根基，因为唯有贤德之人，才能服人。

刘备一生争战，乍看之下胜少败多。刘备攻打益州时，赵戬曾言：「刘备拙于用兵，每战必败。」认为刘备不会用兵，没本事拿下益州，傅干却说：「刘备得人心，又有诸葛亮、关羽、张飞等人杰辅助，怎会不济呢？」结果刘备果真取攻占益州。在荆州依附刘表时，曾建议刘表北伐曹操，刘表不接受。刘备住荆州数年，一次与刘表饮酒时起至厕所，见大腿赘肉生，慨然流涕。还坐，刘表奇怪问起刘备，刘备说：「我戎马半生，常常身不离鞍，大腿赘肉皆消。今天不复骑马，大腿赘肉生。日月若驰，老年快将至矣，而功业不能建立，是以为之悲叹。」

刘备与诸葛亮的君臣际遇，通常被史家视为君臣之典范。三顾茅庐后刘备称得到诸葛亮是「鱼之有水」。诸葛亮在刘备尚在时，就已经为丞相录尚书事假节，张飞被暗杀后又领司隶校尉，集政治实际权力于一身，这在古代是很罕见的。刘备去世时举国托孤诸葛亮，被陈寿称为「君臣之至公，古今之盛轨」。

评价

时人评价

陈寿评曰：「先主之弘毅宽厚，知人待士，盖有高祖之风，英雄之器焉。及其举国托孤于诸葛亮，而心神无贰，诚君臣之至公，古今之盛轨也。机权干略，不逮魏武，是以基宇亦狭。然折而不挠，终不为下者，抑揆彼之量必不容己，非唯竞利，且以避害云尔。」（《三国志·蜀书·先主传第二》）、「刘备天下称雄，一世所惮」（《三国志·吴书·陆逊传第十三》）。尽管刘备并非西晋认为的正统政权，陈寿在三国志内仍然坚持使用同帝王本纪接近的用词，例如在刘备本传称刘备先主，称讳且不直呼其名，去世用和崩相等的殂字。这与三国时代另一位君主孙权的处理手法是不同的。这可以体现陈寿对刘备的尊重，抑或是故国情怀。

曹操：「方今收英雄时也，杀一人而失天下之心，不可。」、「夫刘备，人杰也，今不击，必为后患，将生忧寡人。」、「刘备，吾俦也。但得计少晚。」（《三国志·魏书·武帝纪第一》）「今天下英雄，唯使君与操耳。本初之徒，不足数也。」（《三国志·蜀书·先主传第二》）

孙权：「非刘豫州莫可以当曹操者。」（《三国志·蜀书·诸葛亮传第五》）「猾虏乃敢挟诈！」（《三国志·吴书·周瑜鲁肃吕蒙传第九》）

诸葛亮：上言于刘禅曰：「伏惟大行皇帝迈仁树德，覆焘无疆，昊天不吊，寝疾弥留，今月二十四日奄忽升遐，臣妾号啕，若丧考妣。乃顾遗诏，事惟大宗，动容损益；百寮发哀，满三日除服，到葬期复如礼；其郡国太守、相、都尉、县令长，三日便除服。臣亮亲受敕戒，震畏神灵，不敢有违。臣请宣下奉行。」（《三国志·蜀书·先主传第二》）「刘豫州王室之胄，英才盖世，众士仰慕，若水之归海，若事之不济，此乃天也，安能复为之下乎！」（《三国志·蜀书·诸葛亮传第五》）「刘公雄才盖世，据有荆土，莫不归德，天人去就，已可知矣。」（《三国志·蜀书·董刘马陈董吕传第九》）

关羽：「吾受刘将军厚恩，誓以共死，不可背之。」（《三国志·蜀书·关张马黄赵传第六》）

袁绍：「刘玄德弘雅有信义，今徐州乐戴之，诚副所望也。」（《三国志·蜀书·先主传第二》）

曹丕：「备不晓兵，岂有七百里营可以拒敌者乎！『苞原隰险阻而为军者为敌所禽』，此兵忌也。孙权上事今至矣。」（《三国志·魏书·文帝纪第二》）

孙盛：「刘备雄才，处必亡之地，告急于吴，而获奔助，无缘复顾望江渚而怀后计。」（《三国志·蜀书·先主传第二》）

赵戬：「刘备其不济乎？拙于用兵，每战则败，奔亡不暇，何以图人？」（《三国志·蜀书·先主传第二》）

傅干：「刘备宽仁有度，能得人死力。诸葛亮达治知变，正而有谋，而为之相；张飞、关羽勇而有义，皆万人之敌，而为之将；此三人者，皆人杰也。以备之略，三杰佐之，何为不济也？」（《三国志·蜀书·先主传第二》）

刘元起：「吾宗中有此儿，非常人也。」（《三国志·蜀书·先主传第二》）

程昱：「观刘备有雄才而甚得众心，终不为人下，不如早图之。」 、「刘备有英名，关羽、张飞皆万人敌也」（《三国志·魏书·程郭董刘蒋刘传第十四》）

郭嘉：「备有雄才而甚得众心。张飞、关羽者，皆万人之敌也，为之死用。（郭）嘉观之，（刘）备终不为人下，其谋未可测也。古人有言：『一日纵敌，数世之患。』宜早为之所。」（《三国志·魏书·程郭董刘蒋刘传第十四》）

刘晔：「明公（曹操）以步卒五千，将诛董卓，北破袁绍，南征刘表，九州百郡，十并其八，威震天下，势慑海外。今举汉中，蜀人望风，破胆失守，推此而前，蜀可传檄而定。刘备，人杰也，有度而迟，得蜀日浅，蜀人未恃也。今破汉中，蜀人震恐，其势自倾。以公之神明，因其倾而压之，无不克也。若小缓之，诸葛亮明于治而为相，关羽、张飞勇冠三军而为将，蜀民既定，据险守要，则不可犯矣。今不取，必为后忧。」、「蜀虽狭弱，而备之谋欲以威武自强，势必用众以示其有馀。且关羽与备，义为君臣，恩犹父子。羽死不能为兴军报敌，于终始之分不足。」（《三国志·魏书·程郭董刘蒋刘传第十四》）

贾诩：「吴、蜀虽蕞尔小国，依阻山水，有雄才，诸葛亮善治国，孙权识虚实，陆议见兵势，据险守要，泛舟江湖，皆难卒谋也。用兵之道，先胜后战，量敌论将，故举无遗策。臣窃料群臣，无备、权对，虽以天威临之，未见万全之势也。昔舜舞干戚而有苗服，臣以为当今宜先文后武。」（《三国志·魏书·荀彧荀攸贾诩传第十》）

陈登：「雄姿杰出，有王霸之略，吾敬刘玄德。」（《三国志·魏书·桓二陈徐卫卢传第二十二》）

周瑜：「刘备以枭雄之姿，而有关羽、张飞熊虎之将，必非久屈为人用者。」（《三国志·吴书·周瑜鲁肃吕蒙传第九》）

陆逊：「备干天常，不守窟穴，而敢自送……寻备前后行军，多败少成，推此论之，不足为戚。」、「备是猾虏，更尝事多」、「刘备天下知名，曹操所惮，今在境界，此强对也。」、「斯三虏者（曹操、刘备、关羽）当世雄杰，皆摧其锋。」（《三国志·吴书·陆逊传第十三》）

张松：「刘豫州，使君之宗室而曹公之深雠也，善用兵，若使之讨鲁，鲁必破。鲁破，则益州强，曹公虽来，无能为也。」（《三国志·蜀书·先主传第二》）「刘豫州，使君之肺腑，可与交通。」、「今州中诸将庞羲、李异等皆恃功骄豪，欲有外意，不得豫州（刘备），则敌攻其外，民攻其内，必败之道也。」 （《三国志·蜀书·刘二牧传第一》）

刘巴：「备，雄人也，入必为害，不可内也。」（《三国志·蜀书·董刘马陈董吕传第九》注引《零陵先贤传》）

彭羕：「仆昔有事于诸侯，以为曹操暴虐，孙权无道，振威暗弱，其惟主公有霸王之器，可与兴业致治，故乃翻然有轻举之志。」（《三国志·卷四十·蜀书十·刘彭廖李刘魏杨传第十》）

锺会：「益州先主以命世英才，兴兵朔野，困踬冀、徐之郊，制命绍、布之手，太祖拯而济之，与隆大好。」（《三国志·魏书·王毌丘诸葛邓锺传第二十八》）

杨戏的《季汉辅臣赞》中赞昭烈皇帝：「皇帝遗植，爰滋八方，别自中山，灵精是锺，顺期挺生，杰起龙骧。始于燕、代，伯豫君荆，吴、越凭赖，望风请盟，挟巴跨蜀，庸汉以并。乾坤复秩，宗祀惟宁，蹑基履迹，播德芳声。华夏思美，西伯其音，开庆来世，历载攸兴。」（《季汉辅臣赞》）

裴潜：「使居中国，能乱人，不能为治。若乘边守险，足为一方之主。」（《世说新语·识鉴第七》）（《三国志·魏书·和常杨杜赵裴传第二十三》）

吕布：「是儿最叵信者。」（《三国志·魏书·吕布臧洪传第七》）

吕布诸将：「备数反覆难养，宜早图之。」（《三国志·蜀书·先主传第二》注引王沈《魏书》）

后世评价

习凿齿曰：「先主虽颠沛险难而信义愈明，势逼事危而言不失道。追景升之顾，则情感三军；恋赴义之士，则甘与同败。观其所以结物情者，岂徒投醪抚寒含蓼问疾而已哉！其终济大业，不亦宜乎！」（《三国志·蜀书·先主传第二》）

常璩曰：「先主名微人鲜，而能龙兴凤举，伯豫君徐，假翼荆楚，翻飞梁、益之地，克胤汉祚，而吴、魏与之鼎峙。非英才名世，孰克如之！」（《华阳国志·刘先主志》）

裴松之：「汉武用虚罔之言，灭李陵之家，刘主拒宪司所执，宥黄权之室，二主得失县（悬）邈远矣。《诗》云『乐只君子，保艾尔后』，其刘主之谓也。」（裴松之注《三国志·蜀书·黄李吕马王张传第十三》）

张辅：「刘备威而有恩，勇而有义，宽宏而大略」（《艺文类聚卷二十二》）

朱敬则：「蜀先主抱英济之器，无角逐之材。远窜荆蛮，畏曹公之神武；奄有庸蜀，乘刘璋之政衰。国小人夷，风颓俗陋。」（《全唐文》）

杜甫：「蜀主窥吴幸三峡，崩年亦在永安宫。翠华想像空山里，玉殿虚无野寺中。古庙杉松巢水鹤，岁时伏腊走村翁。武侯祠堂常邻近，一体君臣祭祀同。」（《s:咏怀古迹五首之四｜咏怀古迹五首之四》）

刘禹锡：「天地英雄气，千秋尚凛然。势分三足鼎，业复五铢钱。得相能开国，生儿不像贤。凄凉蜀故妓，来舞魏宫前。」（《s:蜀先主庙｜蜀先主庙》）

王勃：「以先主之宽仁得众，张飞、关羽万人之敌，诸葛孔明管、乐之俦，左提右挈，以取天下，庶几有济矣。然而丧师失律，败不旋踵。奔波谦、瓒之间，羁旅袁、曹之手，岂拙于用武，将遇非常敌乎？」（《三国论》

司马光：「昭烈之汉，虽云中山靖王之后，而族属疏远，不能纪其世数名位，亦犹宋高祖称楚元王后，南唐烈祖称吴王恪后，是非难辨，故不敢以光武及晋元帝为比，使得绍汉氏之遗统也。」（《资治通鉴·第六十九卷·魏纪一》）

苏洵：「项籍有取天下之才，而无取天下之虑；曹操有取天下之虑，而无取天下之量；玄德有取天下之量，而无取天下之才。」（《项籍》）

苏辙：「世之言者曰：孙不如曹，而刘不如孙。刘备唯智短而勇不足，故有所不若于二人者，而不知因其所不足以求胜，则亦已惑矣。盖刘备之才，近似于高祖，而不知所以用之之术。昔高祖之所以自用其才者，其道有三焉耳：先据势胜之地，以示天下之形；广收信、越出奇之将，以自辅其所不逮；有果锐刚猛之气而不用，以深折项籍猖狂之势。此三事者，三国之君，其才皆无有能行之者。独一刘备近之而未至，其中犹有翘然自喜之心，欲为椎鲁而不能纯，欲为果锐而不能达，二者交战于中，而未有所定。是故所为而不成，所欲而不遂。弃天下而入巴蜀，则非地也；用诸葛孔明治国之才，而当纷纭征伐之冲，则非将也；不忍忿忿之心，犯其所短，而自将以攻人，则是其气不足尚也。嗟夫！方其奔走于二袁之间，困于吕布而狼狈于荆州，百败而其志不折，不可谓无高祖之风矣，而终不知所以自用之方。」（《三国论》）

辛弃疾：「求田问舍，怕应羞见，刘郎才气。」（《水龙吟》）

谢采伯：「孙权运筹于内，刘备、诸葛亮、周瑜、关侯等，合谋并智，方拒得曹操，败之于赤壁，亦未为竒政縁。」（《密斋笔记·卷二》）

何去非：「方其豪杰并起，而备已与之周旋于中原矣。始得徐州而吕布夺之，中得豫州而曹公夺之，晚得荆州而孙权夺之。备将兴复刘氏之大业，其志未尝一日而忘中州也。然卒无以暂寓其足，委而西入者，有曹操、孙权之兵轧之也。」

萧常：「昭烈父子以帝室支属，介在一隅，而正位号，尚数十年，由先汉至是，垂祀五百，三代以还，葢未之有。人主之结人心，其效廼尔，有大物者，庸可忽诸。」（《萧氏续后汉书》）

郝经：「汉得天统，莽簒而在光武，操窃而在昭烈。魏吴虽僭，犹夫吴楚也。昭烈天资仁厚，宇量（阙）毅，岿然一世之雄。以兴复汉室为己任，崎岖百折，偾而益坚。颠沛之际，信义逾明。故能终系景命，信大义于天下。任贤使能，洒落诚尽，使诸葛亮以死自效。复见三代君臣，高、光为不亡矣。国贼未讨，境土未复，而偾军崩殂，哀哉！」（《郝氏续后汉书》）

陶宗仪：「备又非人望之所归。周瑜以枭雄目之，刘巴以谁人视之，司马懿以诈力鄙之，孙权以猾虏呼之。」（《南村辍耕录·卷二十五》）

杨璟：「昔据蜀最盛者，莫如汉昭烈。且以诸葛武侯佐之，综核官守，训练士卒，财用不足，皆取之南诏。然犹朝不谋夕，仅能自保。」

孙承恩：「贤矣昭烈，宽厚弘毅。崎岖立国，仗信履义。推诚任贤，肝胆孚契。顾命数词，可训后世。」（《文简集·卷三十八》）

王夫之：「刘先主以汉室之裔，保蜀土，奉宗祧，任贤图治，民用乂安，尚矣。」（《宋论·卷一》）

毛泽东：「刘备的优点主要于是善于用人，善于团结各方人士。而缺点则表现在两个方面：一是好感情用事；二是不能区分主次矛盾。」

赵翼：「关、张、赵云自少结契，终身奉以周旋，即羁旅奔逃，寄人篱下，无寸土可以立业，而数人者患难相随，别无贰志，此固数人者之忠义，而备亦必有深结其隐微而不可解者矣。」（《廿二史札记·卷七》）

历史学家、《三国史话》作者吕思勉认为，如其通观前后，则刘备急于并吞刘璋，实在是失败之远因。倘使刘备老实一些，替刘璋北攻张鲁，这是可以攻下；张鲁既下，而马超、韩遂等还未全败，彼此联合，以扰中原，曹操倒难于对付；刘备心计太工，不肯北攻张鲁，而要反噬刘璋，以至替曹操腾出平定关中和凉州之时间，而且仍给以削平张鲁之机。然而本可联合凉州诸将共扰关中，却变做独当大敌。伐吴之役，刘备因为是能做一番事业，意志必较坚定，理智必较细密，断不会轻易动于感情；况且感情必是动于当时，时间稍久，感情就渐渐衰退，理智就渐渐清醒。然其祸根，亦因急于要取益州，以致对于荆州不能兼顾之故；所以心计过工，有时也会成为失败原因，真个阅历多之人，倒觉得凡事还是少用机谋，依著正义而行好。

《刘备传》作者张作耀认为，刘备人生道路危机四伏、满途坎坷。这是一个战斗历程：起步、挫折、爬起、再挫，发展至立足一方。撇开刘备政治动机不谈，折而不挠、败不气馁、终不为下，为憧憬之目标而奋斗不懈，始终如一。刘备与关羽、张飞一经结义，终身不易。与下士同席而坐，无所简择；善待部下，士卒感恩，愿为驱使。

家庭

世系

按照《三国志》和裴松之注所引《典略》记载，刘备先祖有三种可能。

祖父

• 刘雄，被举孝廉，官至东郡范令。

父

• 刘弘，为东汉末年的州郡小官。

妻妾

• 麋夫人，继正室，麋竺之妹，于刘备在豫州落难时，麋竺将她嫁给刘备。

• 孙夫人，继正室，孙权之妹，与刘备结为政治婚姻，后刘备入蜀，孙权接回她，再无记录。

• 穆皇后吴氏，继正室，吴懿之妹，刘瑁遗孀，刘备入蜀后纳为夫人，后为汉中王后。刘禅即位时，尊她为皇太后，称长乐宫。延熙八年病死，与刘备合葬。

• 甘夫人，沛人，妾室，刘禅生母，曾于长阪被困，幸得赵云解救。后病死，諡皇思夫人，后再追諡昭烈皇后，与刘备合葬。

孙夫人以前的数位嫡室，除麋夫人以外身份皆不可考。妾室甘夫人因他「数丧嫡室」，而主内事。仅知刘备有四次丢失妻子的记录：

• 建安元年（196年），吕布俘虏刘备的妻儿。期间刘备娶麋夫人。1年后二人讲和该妻儿被返还刘备。

• 建安三年（198年），刘备妻儿再被吕布所俘虏。1年后曹操击败吕布刘备重得家眷。

• 建安五年（200年），曹操军击败刘备于小沛，妻儿被俘。

• 建安十三年（208年），长阪坡之战刘备与数十骑逃走，妻儿辎重等被曹操所获。

子女

• 刘封，刘备养子。本姓寇，刘备入蜀后委任为将，但因关羽兵败时不予救援及逼反孟达丧失上庸之责遭赐死。

• 刘禅，字公嗣，刘备长子。后登上皇位。乳名阿斗。

• 刘永，字公寿，刘备次子。先为鲁王，后封为甘陵王。与刘禅宠臣黄皓不和，被刘禅疏远。后东迁洛阳，拜奉车都尉，封为乡侯。

• 刘理，字奉孝，刘备三子、马超女婿。先为梁王，后封为安平王。早卒，諡为悼王。

• 有二女于刘备南逃至长阪时被曹将曹纯所俘。

孙子女

• 刘璇，刘禅长子、费禕女婿，十五岁被立为太子，蜀汉亡后，锺会在成都作乱，被乱兵杀害。

• 刘瑶，刘禅二子，蜀汉亡后投降。

• 刘琮，刘禅三子。

• 刘瓒，刘禅四子，蜀汉亡后投降。

• 刘谌，刘禅五子，北地王，曾反对谯周降魏的提议，但刘禅不接受，在投降之日自杀。

• 刘恂，刘禅六子，蜀汉亡后投降。

• 刘璩，刘禅七子，蜀汉亡后投降。

• 刘胤，刘理长子，承袭为安平王。

• 刘辑，刘理次子、马超外孙，东迁洛阳，拜奉车都尉，封乡侯。

• 公主嫁诸葛瞻（诸葛亮独子）

• 公主嫁费恭（费禕次子）

• 公主嫁关统（关羽次子关兴之长子）

曾孙

• 刘承，刘胤之子，二十岁卒。

• 刘玄，刘永之孙，蜀汉亡后投降，避过永嘉之乱，居于四川成都。

后人

• 唐朝卢龙节度使刘济的墓志铭中，作者权德舆称其为刘备二十一代孙，姜纬堂认为此说甚不可信，他指出刘备子孙在永嘉之乱时大部被杀，只有刘备曾孙刘玄逃到蜀地，汉赵甚至都找不到一个刘备子孙作标榜，时隔四百馀年后又有刘备子孙绵延于幽州昌平县非常值得怀疑；而唐朝崇尚门第是社会风气，冒附先贤，谬托名门以自重比比皆是，新旧唐书《刘济传》中均不取刘济为刘备后裔，正体现出史学家崇实的精神。

后世纪念

纪念建筑

• 陵墓：刘备坟墓在成都市汉昭烈庙内的惠陵。但有说法是在重庆奉节和四川彭山的莲花坝。

• 庙宇：成都市汉昭烈庙、山西省阳泉市刘备庙、台湾大溪刘备庙。

• 楼桑庙三义宫：位于河北省涿州市刘备故里，为纪念「桃园结义」所建。

艺术形象

三国演义

小说《三国演义》为塑造人物性格，将刘备描写成极仁爱的君主，但却爱哭，甚至有歇后语说：「刘备的江山 ——哭出来的」，基本上有关三国的歇后语，多为演义，比方「刘备摔阿斗──收买人心」，然则史实上并无摔阿斗，此外演义为衬托诸葛亮、关羽等人才能，贬低了刘备军事之能，亦也修饰枭雄刘备较令人诟病的一面。且《三国志》记载刘备「喜怒不形于色」，据史可考的哭泣次数也远少于曹操、孙权，反而是较血气方刚、蛮勇豪迈之人。

《三国演义》虚构了从刘胜到刘备的每一代家谱，称献帝核对家谱后发现刘备按辈分是自己的叔父，尊称刘备为皇叔，《三国演义》也多处用「刘皇叔」指代刘备。事实上若将《三国演义》所记家谱对照汉朝君主世系，刘备当为献帝孙辈。且《三国志》等史料并未详细记载刘备世系，也无载献帝尊刘备为皇叔之事。

剧曲

剧曲中的刘备为老生所演，而剧目取材于《三国演义》，例如《刘备过江招亲》、《甘露寺》等剧目。

电视剧

• 1976年--香港丽的电视《三国春秋》，刘备由陈振华饰演。

• 1985年--湖北电视台电视剧《诸葛亮》，刘备由黄家德饰演。

• 1985年--香港亚洲电视电视剧《诸葛亮》，刘备由熊德诚饰演。

• 1992年--中国太原电视台电视剧《关公》（别名：《关公传奇》），刘备由肖国隆饰演。

• 1994年--中央电视台《三国演义》，刘备由孙彦军饰演。

• 1996年--华视《三国英雄传之关公》，刘备由张复健饰演。

• 1999年--电视剧《曹操》，刘备由沈保平饰演。

• 2001年--陈凯歌导演《吕布与貂蝉》，刘备由保剑锋饰演。

• 2004年--郑克洪导演《武圣关公》，刘备由黄湘阳饰演。

• 2006年--电视剧《貂蝉》，刘备由肖国隆饰演。

• 2009年--八大《终极三国》，刘备由陈德修饰演。

• 2010年--中央电视台《三国》，刘备由于和伟饰演。

• 2012年--香港无綫电视《回到三国》，刘备由李国麟饰演。

• 2014年--胡玫导演《曹操》，刘备由杨威饰演。

• 2016年--湖南卫视《武神赵子龙》，刘备由严屹宽饰演。

• 2017年--张永新导演《军师联盟》，刘备由王伯昭饰演。

• 2017年--优酷《终极三国》，刘备由SpeXial-伟晋饰演。

电影

• 1957年《关公千里送嫂》，刘备由张醒非饰演。

• 1957年《关公守华容 刘备过江招亲》，刘备由张活游饰演。

• 1968年《桃园三结义》(台湾国益影业公司)，刘备由曹健饰演。

• 1996年《诸葛孔明》，刘备由梁斌饰演。

• 1998年《超时空要爱》，刘以达饰演的大飞，在跨越时空回到古代三国后化身刘备。

• 1999年《一代枭雄曹操》，刘备由梁斌饰演。

• 2008年《三国之见龙卸甲》，刘备由岳华饰演。

• 2008年《赤壁》，刘备由尤勇饰演。

• 2009年《赤壁：决战天下》，刘备由尤勇饰演。

• 2010年《越光宝盒》，刘备由元彪饰演。

• 2010年《关云长》，刘备由方中信饰演。

• 2020年《新解释·三国志》, 刘备由大泉洋饰演。

• 2021年《真·三国无双》, 刘备由杨佑宁饰演。

游戏

• 三国无双

• 真三国无双

• 三国志

• 吞食天地

• 三国志英杰传

• 三国群英传

• 幻想三国志II

• 王者荣耀

• 神魔之塔(Tower of Saviors)

• 三国杀

• 三国志•战略版

• 破局:三国终章

• 妖怪三国志国盗りウォーズ

动漫作品

• 1971年《三国志》（横山光辉）

• 1983年《》（本宫宏志）

• 1992年《新SD战国传 地上最强篇》白龙顽驮无(刘备为原型角色)

• 1992年《三国志》

• 1994年《苍天航路》（王欣太）

• 2001年《火凤燎原》（陈某）

• 2003年《一骑当千》刘备玄德

• 2007年《BB战士三国传》刘备高达/翔烈帝刘备

• 2009年《三国演义》

• 2012年《纸箱战机》LBX刘备

• 2012年《闪电十一人GO2 时空之石》

（主人公在进行时空跳跃时，曾经拜访刘备。并与之极限合体（游戏术语））

• 2019年《三国演义》

• 2019年《SD高达世界 三国创杰传》刘备独角兽高达

• 2018年《妖怪三国志窃国战争》: