生平

早年

唐德宗貞元三年(787年)，李吉甫于長安任太常博士，李德裕于其在長安萬年縣安邑坊的住宅內出生。貞元八年(792年)四月，李吉甫因竇參與陸贄之案牽連被貶為明州員外長史，李德裕隨父一同移居明州。三年後，陸贄被罷相，貶于忠州，而李吉甫也因此被升為忠州刺史，李德裕也一同移住，《酉陽雜俎》有故事記載此間李德裕于翟塘遇到過怪物。李德裕秉持自幼就有的志向，苦心力學，精通《漢書》與《左傳》。儘管已有足夠的文採，李德裕因不喜歡科舉考試而隨父親輾轉各地，也不與當地諸生一同參與鄉舉。至貞元二十一年八月前，李德裕因父親轉任郴州、饒州而多次遷家。

唐順宗永貞元年(805年)八月，李吉甫受命由饒州調回京師，李德裕卻依舊拒絕考試入仕。據歷史學家李文才的推論，因李氏家族源自李棲筠及李吉甫對待當時科舉制度的態度，李德裕受環境影響而有相同的抗拒心理，即對進士科的浮華問題有共識。同年十二月，順宗病逝。

入仕

唐憲宗元和元年(806年)，李德裕隨李吉甫回到京師。元和四年十一月，由于淮西彰義軍易權于吳少陽，李吉甫自請為淮南節度使，後以王起為掌書記。當時李德裕也隨父出鎮，並曾與時已任御史的王起遊玩于汴州等地。元和八年，李吉甫因在相位七年受褒獎，李德裕也因父恩萌補為秘書省校書郎。李德裕當時儘管與好友王起同在京師為官，卻不常見面，有次雨天去拜訪王起時發現對方已經入朝，于是互敘詩言情，感嘆兩者官署不同而無法如以前那樣親密的交流。同年，李德裕為避嫌而辭校書郎一職，出為地方官，轉多位節鎮幕府從事。

元和九年十月，李吉甫去世，李德裕循例丁憂守制。元和十一年，張弘靖去相位，出鎮河東，駐于太原，彈壓王承宗。李德裕次年在丁憂結束後繼續受任于藩鎮，張弘靖因崔公信升殿中侍御史，闢李德裕為新任掌書記。元和十三年六月，張弘靖組織了唱和詩會，李德裕與崔恭、韓察、高銖、陸瀍、胡証、張賈等人同酬唱。當時，由于張弘靖鎮守太原，沒有奉承周邊宦官，適時監軍使魏弘簡不滿卻無法在公務上指出有何瑕疵，便進言憲宗說張弘靖有很多書畫收藏。憲宗知道後下詔索要，李德裕代替張弘靖撰寫了進獻多種書畫的書狀《代高平公進書畫狀》、《進玄宗馬射圖狀》，後所獻書畫受到憲宗讚賞。元和十四年五月，張弘靖拜為吏部尚書，李德裕隨張弘靖入朝，除為監察御史。後張弘靖再出鎮地方，李德裕留于京師。

穆宗朝

元和十五年正月，憲宗被殺，穆宗即位。李德裕于十三日被任命為翰林學士，仍守監察御史，二月二十日兼為屯田員外郎。穆宗為太子時就聽說過李吉甫的名聲，後面見到李德裕，也非常重視李德裕。因此內廷所出詔書，大部分都是讓李德裕草擬的。穆宗在位初期，政治決策不端，經常採取施恩等疲怠手段，導致了很多用心不良的皇親國戚藉此插手內廷，與當權官員私通有無，而李德裕對這樣的現象有憎恨之感，遂于長慶元年(821年)正月上疏論事。在疏中，李德裕指出駙馬等親戚因身份特殊，不應和朝廷重要官員有過多接觸，他說現在他們都到宰相及各種高層官員的私宅中，因非自身有一技之長而得以被引薦，所以只能利用機密信息為交換。他認為這些官員居清高顯貴的位子，若有公事理應直接于中書省等官署內解決。這一事論得到了穆宗的贊同。在翰林院期間，李德裕結交了同任職翰林院的李紳、元稹，三人因性情相投，文採出人，在當時被並稱為「三俊」。三月二十三日，李德裕改官考功郎中知制誥。

長慶二年正月二十九日，李德裕加翰林學士承旨，二月四日遷為中書舍人。在中書舍人任上，李德裕多接觸機密參要信息，工作做的很好，在任僅兩個星期後，被穆宗調任出為御史中丞填補缺職，專以治肅朝綱。同月，李逢吉自襄陽回朝，他早在憲宗元和時，因對淮西戰事的不同意見不受憲宗待見，被下放為劍南東川節度使，此次回朝就任兵部尚書。適時元稹、裴度任相位，于是李逢吉暗中安排人手，挑撥兩者關係。至六月，元稹和裴度皆因此被罷相，李逢吉順利代為門下侍郎同平章事。經李紳等人的辯解，裴度得以留在京師，而李逢吉為排擠以裴度為代表的李德裕、李紳等人會阻礙他，便多加排擠。于是李紳被調為御史中丞，李德裕則外放為浙西觀察使。

節度浙西

竇易直在李德裕上任前為當地團練防禦使，七月份時治下汴州將領李㝏將將主李願驅逐，竇易直聽聞後想要使用府庫財物犒賞安撫駐軍，後因有人進言說如此賞賜沒有名義，還可能會有新的憂患，于是沒有執行這一計劃。然而軍士都知道了這個消息，恰巧由于河道乾旱，轉運司無法正常轉送金錢糧食，另一將領王國清以這些庫存為賞賜的藉口唆使駐軍叛亂。在事發時有人告密，導致王國清被捕下獄，卻有上千叛亂軍士攻破牢獄，救出王國清。竇易直在退到城樓上後許諾用十萬錢換一級叛軍首級，使手下開始反擊叛軍，活捉並處決了王國清在內的三百多叛軍。至九月李德裕接任前，竇易直大肆將府庫內的財物封賞于將士，導致這些軍士非常驕橫。于是李德裕實施節儉的政策，將地方收入都用為軍費，使得那些軍士不再抱怨。在任兩年後，潤州府庫也逐漸充實，駐軍也恢復了戰鬥力。

長慶三年，李德裕時三十七歲，敢于實施各種新的政策，革除那些會損害百姓利益的舊俗。當時潤州等地治下百姓多迷信巫祝神怪，導致了當他們父母親人病重時，便不敢繼續養育而離去。為了改變這一類風俗，李德裕專門選擇當地那些德高望重的長老等有識之士，宣傳了慈孝及患難與共的道德觀念，並在此基礎上利用法律約束這類行為的再發生。同時，李德裕下令搗毀各地淫祠，鼓勵祭祀當地以前的賢臣；那些容易窩藏盜賊土匪的山房也一俱被毀。除此之外，李德裕也上疏闡述了百姓有厚葬的習俗，他開始禁止此類風氣以使地方可以休養生息。李德裕指出，當時百姓對父母沒有盡孝，反而在死後實施厚葬之舉，不但所用的禮器僭越禮制，祭奠過程十分奢靡，還配音樂送終。這樣的葬禮多為社群共同集資或借貸自己籌劃，導致日常的積蓄被揮霍一空。這樣的現象對百姓而言習以為常，並不敢隨意廢除這樣的習俗，最後使得人戶貧破。因此李德裕提出要嚴禁貴重如金、銀等物為葬禮時裝飾，嚴格懲罰僭越制度來陳設音樂並使用更高等級的葬器的人。這一提議得到了同意，敕中規定說各類利器規格不能超出典章所定，繼續有厚葬之行為的人家儘管不去問罪，卻也需要在官府備案。據統計，李德裕治下共除去淫祠一千多所，山房一千五百間，當地的風氣大有轉變。穆宗特下詔褒獎李德裕之政績。

敬宗朝

長慶四年(824年)正月，穆宗去世，敬宗即位。敬宗登基後生活奢侈，向浙西下詔令命令當地進獻二十具盝子，共計會花費一萬三千兩銀子和一百三十兩金子。七月，在製作了兩具盝子進獻後，李德裕上疏想要敬宗免除這些額外的負擔。他在疏中指出，浙西府庫儲備的銀子只剩下兩三百兩，千方百計湊出來了兩具盝子；另一方面就算節省支出，當地財政還有十三萬貫的虧空。他委婉的指出說上奏此事是既不想負任命之恩，也不希望會使軍需缺闕，對下橫徵暴斂，于是敬宗罷去此次進奉。儘管已經有敕書規定不許進獻，一個月後的道路上依舊來往很多徵收貢品的使者，李德裕再奏事，卻沒有得到回覆。九月，又下詔于浙西，令進獻一千匹繚綾。李德裕再次上疏諫言，不但指出浙西所部無法提供那些貢品，還說明了多位前朝皇帝的節儉風格，期望敬宗可以效仿這些好的行為。這件事情在後世也多被引用與各類奏疏散文，宋代孫甫認為這說明了李德裕以治下百姓為本的思想，不奉承君主的欲望。

十二月，徐州節度使王智興試圖在徐、泗等地設置佛教戒壇，李德裕上《王智興度僧尼狀》彈劾王智興，指稱他為奸幸。李德裕指出自憲宗元和二年起有敕禁止私自剃度，王智興在各個轄區發榜通知戒壇的事情導致一戶人口中必會讓一人剃髮，只為逃避朝廷賦稅，利用宗教的身份來隱瞞自己的資產。而由于元和禁令導致佛門不再興置戒壇，王智興的奏請使全國範圍的沙門奔走，據李德裕的見聞，每日至少有百人渡河來度。王智興請建戒壇的理由為慶祝誕節，而李德裕據此估計等到那時候，江淮以南將會有六十萬壯丁不在戶冊。儘管李德裕上疏後此事被罷，王智興依靠此事致富，獲得了很多利潤，被時輿論所抨擊。

寶曆元年(825年)，敬宗即位未久。他注重于玩樂之事，對理政沒有興趣，于是李逢吉和王守澄等人把持朝政，時為宰相之一的牛僧孺因考慮到以後的仕途于正月上表試圖辭去相位。當時敬宗喜愛游幸，一月中上朝次數不過三，導致了很多官員很難覲見皇帝。因此李德裕于二月八日上《丹扆六箴》勸諫敬宗，分《宵衣》、《正服》、《罷獻》、《納誨》、《辯邪》、《防微》六篇，全方面例舉敬宗理應效仿的前代賢君。在箴中，他用伯禹、光武的例子勸誡敬宗要早起上朝，並且不能因為其他原因就不早朝；他用汲黯、楊阜的例子勸誡敬宗不貪圖華美的服飾或安逸的享受，要遵守禮制；他用漢文帝的例子勸誡敬宗不要多徵地方進獻多餘的事物，不超脫自然就是至理；他用漢成帝、魏明帝的例子勸誡敬宗針對合適的諫言從善如流，不因忠言逆耳而不聽；他用漢昭帝的例子勸誡敬宗多了解自己的國家，多分辨臣子所上奏疏的利弊；他最後用漢武帝、莽何羅的例子勸誡敬宗遵守皇帝應該遵守的法度，居安思危才能免去遺慮。敬宗後經韋處厚手詔讚揚了李德裕所上諫言，在詔內讚賞了他于浙西期間的政績，並肯定了這一箴諫的積極性。此時李德裕為浙西觀察使有數年，希冀回朝任事，由于其箴言間接抨擊了李逢吉，在李逢吉的排擠下繼續留任浙西，不得升遷。

寶曆二年二月，毫州有僧人誆騙百姓，說有一處聖水可以治療疾病。李德裕親自去探查了情況，並在最後上奏中央。他在奏疏中指出，聖水一事是僧人為錢而設的騙局，每一斗水要價三貫。那些病人在去取水之前斷絕葷菜的進食，喝完水後還持續兩個星期只吃素，這導致很多人病情沒有好轉，反而更容易有生命危險。李德裕在視察過程中看到有兩浙、福建的百姓都過來取聖水，他每天阻攔的人口高達數千人。那些取水的人中還有的人取後加入其他水源地的水，再轉賣獲利。李德裕認為聖水一說為妖妄之言，他在調查過程中曾取水做了試驗，若聖水有傳言所說的功效，那麼煮肉的時候肉不會有變化，最後試驗結果証明聖水沒用，因此他提議令汴宋觀察使令狐楚堵塞「聖水」以從根本上安撫地方。時任執政的裴度同意李德裕的說法，批准李德裕所奏。

敬宗一直追慕神仙術，寶曆二年五月，有一名山人杜景先上奏狀，願意在淮南、江南等地尋訪奇人異士。浙西有道士周息元是杜景先的好友，杜景先對敬宗誇耀說周息元已經活了幾百年，敬宗遂派遣中使迎接周息元到京師。當時還有詔下于李德裕，命他準備公車提供乘行。李德裕認為周息元所說荒誕不經，上疏告諫敬宗說他見過的那些所謂道士都是純粹附和皇帝，使用小的伎倆來糊弄別人，文成、五利兩位將軍的道術也沒有靈驗，因此在他看來值得戒備。李德裕在疏中進一步用高宗和玄宗沒有選擇服用那些異士煉出來的黃金為例，說明他在支持敬宗追尋隱士的同時注意自己的身體健康。抵達京師後，周息元自稱認識張果、葉靜能，還描述出他們的面相供畫師畫圖。但是由于他只是平常人，對道學一竅不通，說話怪誕，于是在文宗即位後被放回江西。敬宗在位的三年時間中，一共給浙西下過四次詔書要求推舉當地的佛、道高人，但是李德裕一人都沒有推薦。後修《舊唐書》的史官據周息元的事情為例，認可李德裕見識深廣並堅守正道。

文宗朝

寶曆二年十二月八日，敬宗被殺害，文宗即位。大和元年(827年)九月，時仍為浙西觀察使的李德裕與浙東觀察使元稹一同加檢校禮部尚書。當時李德裕納段成式為自己的幕僚，曾與其一同飲宴。有一次他與李德裕談及唐朝的詞人優劣，李德裕指出當時流行有張九齡之「靈芝無根，醴泉無源」，其實出自虞翻的書信，張九齡只不過將芝草換成靈芝而已。段成式後來碰巧收藏到《虞翻集》，查閱驗証了李德裕所言不虛。大和二年，李德裕因在浙西任上的政績加銜銀青光祿大夫，被贊其惠政「洋溢于歌謳，天下聞之久矣」。

大和三年初，李德裕在浙西推崇道理，治下既有儒學也有各種宗教，只禁止僧人只為蠱惑群眾而皈佛。曾有僧人法融在浙西傳道，于顯慶二年去世，李德裕為法融修造一座新塔，捐獻出自己越二十萬錢的收入。三月，新塔修成，李德裕為此專門寫信給京中好友劉禹錫，請他為這座塔撰寫記文。八月，李德裕被召還入京，為兵部侍郎。裴度本欲推薦李德裕為相，李宗閔卻在宦官的幫助下先拜相。九月，李德裕檢校戶部尚書，出為鄭州、滑州節度使。

節度鄭滑

早在大和元年，李同捷被誅，適時魏博節度使史憲誠也參與鎮壓李同捷之戰，卻暗自接濟李同捷，于是後來本為義成軍節度使的李聽被命兼任魏博節度使。大和三年，史憲誠因一直對中央陽奉陰違，致使他被部下聚眾所殺。何進滔被城內叛軍推舉為首，率軍突襲時駐紮在城外的李聽，李聽所部潰敗之下不得不退守滑州。由于多次動兵，朝廷期望先休養生息，于是魏博與鄭滑暫為對峙狀態，何進滔也被封為魏博節度使。戰事過後，御史中丞溫造等人上疏彈劾李聽，儘管文宗未加罪于李聽，他的兵權被收回，轉為太子少師。當時的義成軍治下鄭滑等地物資殫竭，軍隊因連續作戰也十分疲憊，急需牧民官員施行新政，使當地休養生息。恰逢李宗閔等人排擠李德裕，他便被命接替李聽統轄義成軍鎮。

李德裕出行前，好友劉禹錫贈詩送行，其內表達了他期許出身前朝宰相李吉甫家門的李德裕也可以入相，並稱讚了他在浙西八年期間的政績可嘉。不久于大和四年十月，由于劍南西川節度使郭釗因病不能任職，李德裕被調任頂替郭釗節鎮成都，官加檢校兵部尚書、充劍南西川節度使併兼成都尹，義成軍節度使一職由崔元略所替代。十二月，新任浙西觀察使段嶷轉奏百姓和將校為李德裕立碑的請求，文宗同意並下敕嘉獎李德裕在浙西時功績，令禮部侍郎賈餗撰寫碑文。

節度蜀中

當時的劍南道剛受南詔的襲略，成都南部姚州、協州，西部的維州、松州都被南詔所侵占。郭釗在當地治理不利，民生難以恢復。大和四年十一月，李德裕出劍門，抵達西川。他先派出官吏在各個州縣勘尋被劫掠百姓，將每一個有名字的記錄在冊。經統計，共有九千人被劫掠，其中八千九百人都為尋常百姓。後李德裕靠碟譜索回三千三百人，與監軍使于龍興在大慈寺勘驗了這些人。適時，為防止蜀中被再次襲擾，李德裕親自視察治下地理情形，通過鞏固關防、增加兵員的方式安定百姓的人心。他每日召見有作戰經驗的士卒，仔細辨別了各種山川城池的險要程度，對交通道路的狀況也進行了評估，在一個月內完成了這些事情。當朝廷下令令李德裕修清溪關來阻擋南詔入寇之勢時，李德裕先就地採石營造要塞，同時根據自己所了解的情況回複朝廷說此舉的弊端。他指出蜀中有很多小路與蠻夷相接，不能依靠關隘來阻攔，只有重兵鎮守本地才能確保安全。在他預計中，招募黎、雅州一萬人加上成都兩萬人，只要經過訓練，南蠻就不敢輕舉妄動。

當留在蜀中的精銳被調歸原駐地時，李德裕上奏試圖挽留部分來幫助鎮守。他說蜀兵心理脆弱，戰鬥力不夠與蠻夷交戰，又例舉杜元穎舊事說明自己的兵力短缺。奏狀中還說，李德裕走訪多位將領，知道了僅僅在清溪關附近就有三條大型交通要道，還有很多小路，他恐怕南詔用從蜀中劫掠所得與吐蕃結盟共同入寇。朝廷後同意了李德裕所奏，來自鄭滑、陳許兩鎮共一千五百人的精兵被留于蜀中戍守邊疆。其時李德裕也開始遴選有戰鬥力的州兵，其中老弱、不聽令的士卒都被淘汰，最後剩下七成的兵員；還從河中、浙西等地找來工匠打造更精良的武器裝備。在治下百姓中，李德裕以兩百戶出一男丁的比例招募民兵，並稱他們為「雄邊子弟」。這些民兵中的精銳被他編為十一軍，以保義、慕義、飛星、流電等為名。于是為進一步遏制吐蕃和南詔，李德裕下令修造杖義城以掩護清溪關；修造禦侮城以掩護榮經；並重新修葺了邛崍關，在這些兵城關隘中儲備糧食，使得蜀中民心稍微安定。

除為軍事備御而準備，李德裕對各地的內政也進行了相應的調整。本在邊境戍守部隊的糧草來自于內地的漕運，它們從嘉州、眉州一路運至大度水，這使得抵達時已為夏日，很多船夫因水土不服而死。李德裕遂令邛州、雅州為源，十月份開始運糧至陽山地區，錯開了炎熱的季節，減少了天氣所造成的死傷。適時蜀中很多女孩子被父母賣給別人為妾，于是李德裕令十三歲以下者服行五年的勞作、十三歲以上則為三年，完成後再回到父母家。另一方面，李德裕也效仿他在浙西的政策，拆毀了很多違章建造的寺廟，並藉此增加了百姓耕種的田土面積。後他下令禁止如剃髮而肆意娶妻等陋習，使得治下風氣轉變。

歸還維州爭論

在李德裕坐鎮並對西川進行了改革後，南詔和吐蕃對唐戒心越加強烈。大和五年九月，李德裕收到吐蕃治下維州副使悉怛謀帥手下部將投降的請求，他懷疑有詐，託言說要等命令。于是悉坦某直接帶人到了成都，李德裕不得不派行維州刺史虞藏儉帶兵先入駐維州城。隨後，李德裕就此事上奏文宗，請求新的指令。此奏疏被傳至尚書省，由多位官員共同商議，其中牛僧孺持異議。他指出吐蕃面積廣大，維州的缺失不能傷害到吐蕃的元氣，並說維州地理位置偏遠，吐蕃很容易可以攻打至唐腹地，有維州對戰局沒有幫助，因此不宜同意收納維州。李德裕後再上疏，說明了自己針對吐蕃的戰略計劃。在疏內，他指出維州對于吐蕃和唐廷都非常重要，維州城三面臨江，不但是蜀中可以進擊南詔和吐蕃的要衝，也是吐蕃在西方可以抵禦唐廷的險要。他進一步解釋說維州地理的重要性體現于當初韋皋千方百計試圖進取維州就是為了可以鎮戍邊陲，如果現在依靠維州城布置防線，則可以省去其他很多兵寨集結的重兵，也能威脅到失去維州保護的吐蕃城池。文宗最後認為牛僧孺所言更有道理，考慮到唐與吐蕃關係剛剛建立，即命令李德裕歸還維州及請降者。維州當李德裕送悉怛謀回吐蕃後，得知他們在吐蕃境內就地誅殺，因此加深了和牛僧孺的矛盾，而李德裕的支持者也認為牛僧孺的舉動是防止李德裕獲取功勳。

後于武宗會昌三年三月，李德裕再以此事上奏武宗，提出此事以前被牛僧孺等人所阻礙，請求追封因此被殺的悉怛謀。在奏疏內描述了他被迫將悉怛謀送回時，吐蕃的使者直接將他們在唐國界內虐殺這些人的見聞。于是武宗同意追封悉怛謀為右衛將軍。

後世士人對李德裕、牛僧孺針對此事的意見有分歧的看法。宋代司馬光在他的《資治通鑑》中對此事評論說唐與吐蕃剛剛建立好關係，就占據維州，無論是從利益或者義理上都是不對的。他認為當時李德裕說此事是從利益的角度出發，牛僧孺則是從大義的角度出發，因此牛僧孺所言更符合他的看法。後洪邁也明確支持司馬光的論斷，以牛僧孺之論為正確。陸游卻持相反的意見，他寫《籌邊樓記》追述李德裕的事跡，引用了重建籌邊樓的范成大對牛、李在維州事上的評論，認為李德裕鎮守蜀中時，維州一事就是因為牛僧孺而功敗垂成，如果維州被拿下，則李德裕可以據此取得更多的功績。胡寅從另一個角度回護李德裕，說牛僧孺放棄唐原有的土地，並將歸附的人捆縛送回是「以小信礙大計」，李德裕為洗刷前朝恥辱並奏請追封悉怛謀是大義的體現。後宋明理學著名的代表人物朱熹明確指出李德裕奏疏所言都是為過謀事，而牛僧孺儘管以義理說事，卻是完全為了一己私利。

明代史家王夫之在其著作《讀通鑑論》中針對此事有更為詳盡的評論。他指出，維州一事支持牛僧孺的觀念是自司馬光開始的，司馬光的目的是為說北宋當時對外的軍事政策積極，從而利用牛僧孺的觀點來告誡皇帝。王夫之進一步說明了唐、宋兩個時代對外的強弱對比不同，戰略利害也是兩個方向，用一時的判斷決定千秋的是非是有問題的。他詳細分析了當時吐蕃的國力，用接近李德裕時期的幾個戰事為例，說明當時吐蕃軍隊的戰鬥力不同以往，對比唐軍相對弱小。隨後他強調了將歸降的悉怛謀等人再送回吐蕃屠刀之下會使他人寒心，牛僧孺的一番言論在他看來屬于私黨之見，無視國家本身的利益需求。現代著名史學家岑仲勉先生在考証時也引援了王夫之的觀點，並在此基礎上利用牛黨當政後的事例為旁証，將兩個時期同樣占據維州等城的行為作對比，指出了前後敘述形容的矛盾之處，認為牛僧孺此舉即是「以私害公」。

第一次拜相

在維州事發後，文宗對自己的決定有後悔之意，時西川道監軍使王踐言轉為樞密使，奏對文宗時支持李德裕所言。大和六年十二月，牛僧孺因此被罷為淮南節度使，李德裕則被召為兵部尚書入朝，段文昌代為劍南西川節度使。後段文昌上奏請為李德裕立德政碑，其奏疏為張弘靖子張次宗所草擬。次年二月，李德裕拜相，為同中書門下平章事守兵部尚書，爵進贊皇伯，食邑七百戶。李德裕面見文宗謝恩時，文宗問及朝廷中的朋黨情況。李德裕認為當時官員里三分之一的人都屬于朋黨，就算新入朝的也會趨炎附勢陷入黨爭，他進一步建言說要任用更公正的官員，藉此消除朋黨。當時以楊虞卿、張元夫等人為首的朋黨政治下行政受到嚴重幹擾，文宗對此十分不滿，李德裕藉機建議貶官這幾個黨魁，于是文宗分別貶斥楊虞卿為常州刺史、張元夫為汝州刺史。後李宗閔發話說李德裕在外地時間長，對朋黨的情況不如他清楚。他指出楊虞卿在和賓客應酬時被稱為行中書，因此他沒有給楊虞卿一個好的官位。李德裕諷刺說如果給事中不好還有什麼官好，使得李宗閔無言以對。

李德裕初為相，便開始針對京中一些舊制進行了改革。以前的時候，三省六部的官員需要在執宰空閒時才能拜見，其他官員非公事不能謁見。李宗閔在權時常常有客人，時為太子太傅的李聽帶人在李宗閔處聚會，喝醉了才離去。李德裕因此規定了百官有公事要參見宰相的，必須先通報于憲台，罷朝後也不能到中書省來，而是直接從龍尾道離開。京兆府本在上朝時安排護送的衛兵，被李德裕以沒有重要的事情時不需要武備的理由罷去；罷朝後百官也被禁從興利門抄近道。在這幾項規定被貫徹後，禁中官署秩序得到了改善。中書、尚書兩省以前為使自己賺取利潤，給予江淮一些豪商便于通貨的令符。這樣一來，那些商人就被各個城鎮奉為上賓，並依此抬高自己的地位。這些作為使得各地本土的小商販所占據的市場被侵吞，利潤被那些最富的商人所賺取。李德裕判說他們不應與百姓爭利，因此罷去了這項特權。六月份，李宗閔罷相，李德裕本官晉為中書侍郎兼集賢殿大學士。

寶曆元年時，劉從諫的父親劉悟去世，劉從諫效仿河北三鎮的做法，世襲為昭義節度使。當時的執政李逢吉因為受賄，幫助李從諫拿到節度使的位子，李絳的反對被壓了下去。大和七年七月，宣武節度使楊元卿生病，朝廷討論換人代替，李德裕便提出將劉從諫調任到宣武軍，以截斷與山東的關係，文宗卻認為不可行，最後李程代為宣武軍節度使。同月，李德裕上奏，引用代宗時宰相楊綰針對教育的一封書狀，建議科舉以經術為重，其中進士科以議論經籍為主，刪去詩賦等浮華卻不務實的題目。針對皇室、勛貴的後代，李德裕也一併提出了幾點提議，他認為那些王族生養在深宮沒有好處，不應該如此浪費賦稅所得，可以讓諸王出任各地為長官並檢驗他們的才能。這些建議被文宗所採納，他于八月冊封太子後下詔，落實了這幾項政策。然而，最後由于無法確定需要空出的職位，諸王一事被罷。

大和八年正月，逢新一輪進士及第。當時的慣例是禮部將進士的名單呈報給中書門下覆核，禮部侍郎先將名單交由宰相過眼，經宰相同意後再放榜取士。李德裕認為此舉不妥，他指出在這過程中榜單多有修改之處，也導致外人多有流言。所以儘管審查更為精細，宰相也不應先于他人知道取捨。于是他下令說禮部以後進士名單不用呈報，直接放榜。

貶官袁州

早在敬宗時，王守澄即和鄭注有勾結，于大和年間鄭注依靠王守澄的幫扶成為內廷一員。大和八年八月，李逢吉族人李訓說服李逢吉，入京賄賂鄭注，藉此被王守澄推薦給文宗。文宗因中意李訓講解易經的水平，想要提拔他入翰林為諫官。由于李訓早年試圖陷害裴度，事發被流放，李德裕勸告文宗說李訓向來的作為文宗也知道，不適宜當為近侍官員。後王涯支持文宗，使得文宗猶豫不決，最終下敕任命李訓為四門助教。給事中鄭肅、韓佽封駁了這一敕書，被王涯召見說李德裕留言讓他們不用封駁，于是這封敕書順利下達。第二天，兩人將此事報告給李德裕，李德裕批評他們說就算說不封還也要當面講，不需要托人傳言，而且給事中的封駁之任也非要宰相覆核的。九月，鄭注回朝，他和王守澄、李訓一同計劃對付李德裕，他們利用李宗閔和李德裕的舊怨，引誘李宗閔和李德裕更加敵對。十月，李宗閔被召入朝為執政，李德裕則因此被出為山南西道節度使，李訓在當日便充為翰林侍講。

對李訓的任命導致了給事中鄭肅、韓佽等人的抗議，不得不退回成命。李德裕面見文宗，請求留在京師，數日後還為兵部尚書。李宗閔後指出李德裕為節度使的詔書已經下達，于是李德裕不再有平章事的頭銜，節鎮改為鎮海軍。由于朝中大臣結黨互相針對，文宗多有擔心，認為去除朝廷里的朋黨比平定河北還要難。

大和八年十一月，李德裕赴潤州任，途徑汝州時，受到了時為汝州刺史的劉禹錫招待。次年，李訓、鄭注試圖誣陷德裕，他們利用了在大和五年發生的宋申錫一案，指使王璠、李漢上奏構陷說李德裕在浙西為觀察使時賄賂杜仲陽以結交漳王李湊，圖謀不軌。胡三省在他對《資治通鑑》的注釋中指出以資治通鑑本身文本為準，李德裕就任時間的差距使他不可能參與入宋申錫一事。當文宗召集幾位中樞官質問此事時，路隋不認同李德裕會做這種事，他指出如果李德裕有罪，那麼他應也有罪。最後于四月十一日，李德裕被貶官為太子賓客，分司東都，路隋則因此被罷相，替為鎮海軍節度使。兩個星期後，李德裕被文宗以皇帝生重病時沒有任何憂慮、在蜀中貪財、賄賂奸人為由，貶為袁州長史。

節度淮南

大和九年十一月，甘露之變事發，失敗後王涯、李訓等人皆被當場誅殺，而時為鳳翔節度使的鄭注也因此被殺。時執政薛元賞成功平撫神策軍，穩定了內廷。李德裕此時已在袁州任，他在任期間作了多首描寫當地環境的詩賦並和兒子李燁唱和。當時還是郡學生的盧肇也受到過李德裕的禮遇，後于會昌三年科舉中為進士第一。

開成元年(836年)三月，由于文宗意識到當初李德裕勾結漳王一事屬于鄭注等人的污衊，他升李德裕官為滁州刺史，階複銀青光祿大夫。四個月後，李德裕官複太子賓客分司東都，他九月十九日抵達洛陽，居住于平泉山居。其好友劉禹錫也任同職，兩者互相作唱和詩多首。文宗時問幾位執宰，說朝廷現在還有什麼遺留之事需要處理，幾位都回答說有宋申錫之事還沒解決。文宗感嘆說當時兄弟都不能保護，何況是宋申錫，于是讓人追為褒賜宋申錫。他又說李德裕現在就如同宋申錫，有意下詔升李德裕為浙西觀察使。後在與學士說此事時，黎植反對說驅逐朋黨時李德裕和李宗閔都被貶出，只有李德裕連續三次升官。文宗便問他曾經推薦的鄭注是李德裕想要殺的人，現在官位應該給誰。這使得黎植不敢再對，于是十一月二十一日，詔下李德裕，再任他為浙西觀察使並于十二月四日自洛陽出發赴任。李德裕前後共三次節度浙西，加起來已有十年以上。

開成二年五月，李德裕改官為淮南節度使以頂替牛僧孺，同時檢校戶部尚書兼為揚州大都督府長史，牛僧孺則調為檢校司空，官升東都留守。牛僧孺聽說此事後，先將軍政等事務託付給了自己的副手張鷺，再行入朝。當時揚州府庫中藏有八十萬貫的錢帛，李德裕到任後先循例清點治下府庫的錢帛軍械等物，發現錢只剩四十萬，其餘一半記錄被張鷺所支用。于是李德裕上奏言明此發現，牛僧孺認為此事沒錯，訴訟于文帝，姚合、魏謩等官也以此彈劾李德裕說他因私怨而中傷牛僧孺。在文宗下令李德裕再行核實後，李德裕上疏認罪，指出節鎮替代時有「殺半數」的慣例，承認他沒有認識到這一情況。文宗下詔免除了這一罪責。開成四年四月，李德裕檢校尚書左僕射。

武宗朝

第二次拜相

文宗開成五年正月，武宗被立為皇太弟並勾當軍國事，在神策中尉仇士良等宦官的幫助下登位。由于當時的執政楊嗣複、李鈺本支持前太子，武宗將他們罷去，在七月時召李德裕回朝，時為宣武節度使的李紳代為淮南節度使。李德裕于九月抵達京師，即拜相，本官升吏部尚書同中書門下平章事，兼為門下侍郎。當入謝時，李德裕向武宗提出了幾條諫言。他指出，要治理好朝廷，需要先辨別正邪，而可以辨別的方法就是看是否結朋黨；後再引用了管仲與齊桓公故事來說明政出一門的重要性；最後建議執宰任期不能長久，對比了賢相姚崇三考滿後退相和李林甫總掌朝政十九年招致天寶時期的衰敗。十一月，李德裕為義成軍節度使時替代史憲誠為魏博節度使的何進滔去世，他的兒子何重霸被推舉為首。李德裕知道後致書節度河陽的李執方，請他勸說李重霸歸順朝廷。

會昌元年(841年)二月，仇士良因劉弘逸、薛季棱為文宗所看重，唆使武宗將兩人賜死，並派出宦官誅殺被貶為湖南觀察使的楊嗣複和桂管觀察使李玨。三月二十四日，李德裕休假在家，晚上聞知有中使出發去處置楊嗣複和李鈺，便找人向鹽鐵轉運使崔珙、戶部尚書杜悰核實此消息，確知有使離開後他連夜草擬了一份奏狀。二十五日早晨，崔珙、崔鄲、陳夷行三位執政都已到中書，于是李德裕在一起吃飯的時候完成了這封奏狀，請三人與他一同在延英殿與武宗論述此事。然而第一份奏狀沒有回覆，李德裕遂于中午寫了第二封奏狀再進，並也請樞密使到中書，詢問賜死之事的真假，樞密使便透露說楊嗣複、李鈺牽涉其中。李德裕與其他幾位執政待在中書，專門等延英殿奏對的機會。至申時，延英殿開，李德裕邀請了中書門下的一些官員，對他們說就算他一個人懇請武宗救不了楊嗣複等人，他們總不會都不能打動武宗的。進入延英殿後，李德裕等人率先勸說武宗慎重考慮此事，而武宗堅持說自己不後悔這個決策，多次令他們先坐下，李德裕說沒有聖旨免除賜死的命令就不敢坐。武宗在猶豫之後同意了李德裕等人所請，他解釋說李鈺想要扶持陳王，楊嗣複還在試圖說服安王一方的楊妃效仿武則天舊事，李德裕便說這些消息虛實難知。于是武宗最終召回宦官，將楊嗣複貶為潮州刺史，李玨為昭州刺史。

九月，幽州發動兵變，主帥史元忠被陳行泰所替代，上書請求朝廷授予節度使之符節未果，又被張絳所殺。當陳行泰奏報抵達京師時，李德裕向武宗建議不要理會，他認為幽州自己會亂，後果然張絳事出。在此期間，李德裕上的《論幽州事宜狀》解釋了他一系列建議的原因，在內指出了幽州從朱克融就開始的不歸順朝廷的風氣，計劃通過不將節鉞給予擅自立為節度使的將軍來約束這種習俗。十月，雄武軍使張仲武想要攻打張絳，他派遣手下吳仲舒到京城請求平複幽州，理由為張絳慘虐。當時李德裕召見了吳仲舒，他問雄武軍有多少兵員，在知道只有本城八百加上折衝府的五百後追問這點兵力如何才能取勝，吳仲舒用利用人心和斷絕糧道兩種計策回答後，李德裕便上表推薦張仲武為平叛人選，加為盧龍節度使。

十月，鑑於武宗因喜好遊獵，每天很晚才回皇宮，對于朝事不顧，李德裕遂上《論游幸狀》勸諫武宗，說明作為君主需要有良好的作息，不能荒于遊樂。十一月，武宗謁見郭太后時，太后指點他要多採納諫言，因而翻閱了李德裕等人的諫狀。這些奏疏中多為勸誡他不要頻繁遊獵，于是他採納了這些諫言，減少了外出遊獵的次數，那些因遊玩事而可以出入宮禁的人也不再能隨意出入，不再隨意給賞賜。

對回鶻戰略

同年二月時，回鶻內亂，與牙帳關係相近的十三部落立烏希特勒為烏介可汗，下屬部落多次騷擾唐邊境，唐廷不知道回鶻內亂始末，因此邊將和侵軼的回鶻士卒有所交鋒。李德裕撰詔《賜背叛回鶻敕書》，在內指出了當時南下的回鶻部落燒殺搶掠，警告他們不要繼續；同時也說唐廷一方不知道當時嫁過去的太和公主的情況，因此派遣使節魏謩前去宣旨，警告回鶻一方不要再動刀兵，也令唐軍固守邊疆，先不和敵軍交兵。

八月，天德軍回報中樞，報告了回鶻近期的動亂結果，說明了可汗的變換始末以及太和公主被新可汗所截遷移到其他地域的事情。由于回鶻部落遷移時缺乏後勤資源，在抵達唐邊境後試圖用金子、玉石等事物換取糧食，天德軍使田牟貪財想要冒領功勳，和監軍使韋仲平奏議提請出擊回鶻，這一提案由朝廷官員共同商議是否批准，李德裕上奏想要用撫慰的方式對待回鶻，他提議接濟回鶻三萬石糧草，武宗對此奏猶豫不決。李德裕提出，這次回鶻移居到天德軍附近的嗢沒斯特勒一部窮無所歸，以前也和唐秋毫無犯，不應趁人危難再去攻打。他還用漢宣帝與呼韓邪單于為例建議派遣使臣帶三萬石糧草去宣撫回鶻部落，陳夷行反對說這是資敵行為。李德裕便說德城擁兵只有一千多人，戰鬥不利的話城池就會淪陷，不如直接安撫，就算敵方想要入寇，反擊之事也是要集合多路軍隊，而非天德軍獨自所可以抗擊的。最後，鴻臚卿張賈遣為巡邊使出使回鶻，宣告朝廷的回應並先觀察他們的具體情況。張賈出發後，武宗問李德裕能否保証嗢沒斯是真的請降，李德裕回答說他也不能確定，他認為在這樣的情況下可以先用懷柔的政策，召集河東和振武軍士兵防備意外。他表示如果回鶻決定攻打城鎮，可以用武力驅逐，田牟也可以獲得軍功。後于八月二十四日，李德裕上奏狀，他認為拒絕回鶻所部的投誠，並還加以攻伐，會失去大唐的恩義威信，唐軍在此基礎上如果還失敗的話，那麼就會產生更多的邊患。他進一步指出，回鶻所部自六月以來，沒有侵犯邊關，亦或者搶奪党項的物產，回鶻之前奏上的表狀也顯示出了他們的誠懇。李德裕還解釋了田牟所說的並非現在的這個部落，而是其他的惡徒，現在在天德軍所邊的是嗢沒斯部落，非常飢困。為此他還舉了漢宣帝五鳳年間的事例，當時匈奴有亂，也有人建議趁機平滅匈奴，後在蕭望之的勸說下反而遣使慰問，最後使得漢邊境平安六十年。李德裕也提出了一個備用計劃，即召集太原和振武軍的騎兵在邊境處，防備回鶻所部決定入寇。他總結說回鶻和党項等國之間的交鋒是他們自己的恩怨，而唐廷不應該派軍隊去幫助任何一方，等到張賈回朝後就可以知道具體情況並決定下一步的策略。在此之前，約束田牟不許主動進犯。

至十一月，魏敬休前去宣讀新的諭旨，指出新的可汗還沒有受到自己的冊命，之前幾個月裡多次出使回鶻，給了很多幫助，回鶻所部現在需要儘快離開唐邊境；並且自己的武器裝備也不能借給他們，否則其他附屬也會藉此討要。朝廷方面當時沒有獲知回鶻方面公主的動向，烏介可汗便以太和公主的名義派遣使者入朝，並請求唐廷將振武城借給回鶻所部，用來安置公主。十二月十四日，在李德裕的請求下，武宗下詔王會為使節，按既定的計劃攜兩萬石糧草撫慰回鶻。詔書中再次說明了回鶻作為藩屬和唐的友誼，勸說回鶻所部在接納唐所賑救濟糧食後可以離開；同時拒絕借振武城的要求，催促他們儘快回到其故土。同時，李德裕上奏請求增加太原地區的防禦力量，他指出朝廷過于關注回鶻，將會使得吐蕃趁機入寇。于是朝廷分別從鄭滑、陳許兩鎮兵馬中調撥三千步兵，屯戍在太原，協助大同軍守衛西北。

會昌二年正月，李德裕進位司空，張仲武也就任盧龍節度使。當時根據李德裕的策略，遣兵部郎中李拭為巡邊使，視察天德、振武兩軍備御狀況。

二月，回鶻方面再次上書請求暫借振武城，理由是受到了吐谷渾和党項的侵略，把糧食都搶走了，于是李德裕擬寫《賜回鶻書意》，說明了唐廷已經幫助回鶻很多次，惟有借城的事情自古未有，不能同意。這一詔書由中官楊觀帶去烏介可汗處宣讀。同時，李德裕上疏讓巡邊使李拭在太原時整飭邊防。他在疏內表明雲州以北的整體防禦要衝在于把頭烽，河東節度使苻澈曾經修繕過把頭烽，但是並沒有在其中派駐任何士卒，如同虛設。他想要李拭和苻澈商易重新制置這一烽城，抽調兵員駐紮。另一方面，天德、振武附近的三受降城之間距離超過四百里路，位于腹地的中、東受降城都缺乏足夠的兵馬守衛。李德裕進一步的解釋了兩城的困迫處境，他指出中受降城現在駐兵只有一隊，舊有的城牆破損也沒有人修複；東受降城則因為是新建造的城池，城中沒有水源，水供應只能依靠城外的金河和城西門外的水井。現在北邊的敵人多聚集在陰山北面，自南面出來後便會先遭遇這兩城，因此需要太原和振武軍共同抽調三千士兵前去修築中受降城；東受降城則可以修建衛星城，戍衛水源，同時考慮修複張仁願時的堡壘舊址。李德裕認為這樣一來就可以使得振武、天德、受降城之間會形成完整的防禦鏈，震懾周邊敵酋。他還在奏疏內指出回鶻還在邊境，不得不防，而擁有穩固的邊防力量後就不難後期制置回鶻。

天德軍在邊境多次將前來投降的回鶻百姓捕捉並殺害，王可度自天德軍將此事奏上中央，指出因不敢在軍城內留有這類人，所以都處置掉了。三月四日，李德裕因此事上疏，要求下詔束縛如此行為。他認為這樣做有傷唐朝的仁義，建議再有捉到回鶻人，就遷移到太原地界安置下來。當時，嗢沒斯告訴田牟赤心想要侵犯唐的邊境，兩人合謀把赤心和他的僕從殺了，但是七千戶的手下隨同那頡啜向東逃走，在橫水地區燒殺搶掠。李德裕接到河東方面的奏報後請兵反擊，他對比地理位置後認為這支軍隊離烏介太遠，因此不屬于可汗所部，密詔盧龍軍前往截擊回鶻亂軍，用來震懾回鶻可汗。

四月，田牟上報說因為回鶻入寇，他在請示之前便出兵三千抗擊回鶻。李德裕知道後，于同月十八日上疏提出了相應的策略。他指出，田牟軍事能力不足，奏狀中說他已經出兵三千人，說明天德軍全軍盡出，如果戰事不利，那麼天德城就難免空虛；回鶻又擅長野戰，而不善于攻堅戰，因此田牟應當採取是堅守城池的策略，等待援軍到來。李德裕認為要從浙西、宣州共調集弓箭手七百人組成支援田牟的援軍，走道河曲，這樣一來可以依靠森林等地理優勢截擊回鶻的騎兵部隊，到天德後再歸入天德軍指揮序列。李德裕鑑於中央和前線來往時間過長，提議先派遣中使去制止田牟出擊的行動，他再提出若已經開戰，為了防止有意外，要把作戰經驗豐富的石雄調為天德軍都防禦副使，統領天德軍的騎兵。同時，還下詔給吐谷渾、党項等部落，許諾他們可以自留戰利品，在天德軍進擊後一同進攻，靠殺敵數量再進行封賞。為進一步瓦解回鶻的戰鬥力，李德裕提議回鶻因為遷移而後勤乏力，人心浮動，所以可以讓田牟誘降回鶻人，投降者給予糧食後遣送到不會影響戰局的太原。而為了在戰時維持後方的穩定，李德裕也提出讓劉沔、李忠順等部暫時收管回鶻俘虜、叛逃之人，部分遣散到太原。除戰術的策略外，李德裕還試圖通過這次戰事警告周邊部落，他認為儘管無法知道嗢沒斯的誠意到底有幾分，還是需要加官晉爵，用以體現回鶻這次是因為不歸順唐朝而獲得的懲罰，唐軍出擊也不是以消滅回鶻為目的。後李德裕再上疏，請得詔書下發給張仲武，聯合契丹等部落一同驅趕赤心的部下，並把烏介部落遣散出唐邊境地域。五月，嗢沒斯及其下屬部落歸降唐朝，獲封左金吾大將軍、懷化郡王。在六月時，嗢沒斯的部下被並為歸義軍，他本人則改名李思忠，率領歸義軍與唐軍一同討伐烏介部。

李德裕受到武宗的信任，言聽計從。短短數年，外攘回紇，內平澤潞；更嚴肅整頓吏治，裁汰冗官，制馭宦官，使朝政為之一新。會昌五年（845年），協助唐武宗滅佛運動，一次拆毀伽藍四千六百餘所，還俗僧尼二十六萬餘人。會昌元年（841年）兼左僕射，及討澤潞功成，拜太尉、封衛國公。

武宗死後，會昌六年（846年），德裕被剛即位的唐宣宗罷相。初出為荊南節度使，俄徙東都留守，尋貶潮州司馬。大中二年（848年）宣宗發布了再貶李德裕制，再貶為崖州司戶參軍，流放到海南島。李德裕在海南積極為當地百姓傳授儒學，頗受百姓愛戴。

晚年

李德裕在位時獎掖寒門後進，在他南謫時，有人寫詩曰：「八百孤寒齊下淚，一時回首望崖州」。其表弟某侍郎遣人餉以衣物，李德裕回書答謝之，曰：「天地窮人，物情所棄，雖有骨肉，亦無音書，平生舊知，無復吊問。閣老至仁念舊，再降專人，兼賜衣服器物茶藥至多，開緘發紙，涕咽難勝。大海之中，無人拯恤，資儲蕩盡，家事一空，百口嗷然，往往絕食，塊獨窮悴，終日苦飢，唯恨垂沒之年，須作餒而之鬼。十月末，伏枕七旬，藥物陳裛，又無醫人，委命信天，幸而自活。」書後記（大中三年）閏十一月二十日，從表兄崖州司戶參軍同正李德裕狀侍郎十九弟。大中三年十二月初十（即850年1月26日），病困交加的李德裕死于海南海口，享年六十三歲。歿後十年，唐懿宗時，「詔追復太子少保、衛國公，贈尚書左僕射」，但並未給予謚號。《唐會要》稱謚忠、贈司空，可能是誤將其父李吉甫的身後待遇誤記作他的。

李德裕「性孤峭，明辯有風採，善為文章。……不喜飲酒，後房無聲色娛」，自奉儉約。「承武宗恩顧，委以樞衡。決策論兵，舉無遺悔，以身扞難，功流社稷」。辦事專斷，受到一些朝臣的怨恨。排斥牛僧孺、李宗閔等人，但亦曾進言力救牛黨人物楊嗣複、李玨。反之，牛黨中構陷李德裕欲置之死地者，多小人而鮮君子，如「白敏中、令狐綯，在會昌中德裕不以朋黨疑之，置之臺閣，顧待甚優。及德裕失勢，抵掌戟手，同謀斥逐，而崔鉉亦以會昌末罷相怨德裕」。

文學成就

詩詞文賦

李德裕為晚唐文壇代表人物之一，。宋代文學家歐陽修稱李德裕的文學作品「文辭甚可愛也」。

在海南曾作詩數首：

:嶺水爭分路轉迷，桄榔椰葉暗蠻溪。愁衝毒霧逢蛇草，畏落沙蟲避燕泥。

:五月畬田收火米，三更津吏報潮雞。不堪腸斷思鄉處，紅槿花中越鳥啼。

:獨上高樓望帝京，鳥飛猶是半年程。青山似欲留人住，百匝千遭繞郡城。

:一去一萬里，十來九不還。家鄉在何處，生渡鬼門關。

——清袁枚：子不語第二十回

文集源流

李德裕一生中多著述，他曾分別于武宗會昌中在相期間及宣宗大中中在貶期間系統輯錄自己所撰寫過的各類政治及思想文獻，並請自己的好友鄭亞為文集作序。後世總結這兩種匯編，稱之為《李文饒文集》，或稱《會昌一品集》、《李衛公會昌一品集》等。文集初有二十卷，後補充別集十卷、外集四卷。一開始，李德裕將自己已經完成的十五卷本交付鄭亞，鄭亞後託付李商隱代他擬寫文集的序文，遂被李商隱冠名為《會昌一品集》。鄭亞接手後對李序做了一些修改，並命已拓展為二十卷的文集為《會昌一品制集》，對內容也進行了新的編排。

鄭亞所編的二十卷文集結合十卷別集和後稱外集的《窮愁志》四卷，共三十四卷。其中別集主要有李德裕早年的各種作品，包含部分奏狀。外集則為李德裕晚年被貶後的一些作品匯編，其中部分作品真偽受到了一定的爭議。

李德裕文集的版本中現存可考最早的是宋浙刻本《會昌一品制集》，曾被李廷相、黃丕烈等人所收藏。陸心源曾利用月湖丁氏影宋鈔本為校本，對比明嘉靖刻《李衛公全集》，指出了明刻本中的錯誤繁多。與《會昌一品制集》同時代的還有《李衛公備全集》，其中包括文集三十四卷及姑臧集、獻替記(即獻替錄)、辨謗略，共五十卷。明清時期李德裕的文集多為翻刻宋本，有嘉靖十行本《李文饒文集》、萬曆藍印本《李文饒文集》等。當時文人除利用宋刻本對各類翻刻及抄本進行校勘外，還對文集加入點評。經過校正的嘉靖刻本于天啟年間被重刻，其內包含了時人韓敬的評點。現中國科學院圖書館藏有明陳子龍評點翻刻嘉靖本《李衛公文集》。清代光緒年間曾複刻《李文饒文集》，其中《周秦行紀論》被刪去，後四庫全書編撰時則採納了陸心源校嘉靖本。

其他作品

• 大和辨謗略：也可稱《太和辨謗略》，李德裕以憲宗朝時令狐楚所編的《元和辨謗略》為基礎，將原本十卷的內容減縮至三卷，于大和七年上奏呈書。時由集賢學士裴潾為此書作序。

• 御臣要略：大和八年九月時呈于文宗，現已失散。

• 次柳氏舊聞：大和八年九月時同《御臣要略》一起被李德裕呈上，別稱《次柳氏舊史》。此書主要記載關于前朝高力士所知相關事跡，本由柳芳所問得，李德裕認為其中的記載有實証而非傳聞，因此可以判斷為實錄，于是整理柳芳的舊聞，裁出此書。

• 西南備邊錄：開成五年進獻，共十三卷。此書包含了李德裕為劍南西川節度使期間對當地戰略地理要害的總結，著錄他所觀察唐對吐蕃邊防的優勢和劣勢。

• 姑臧集

• 伐叛志

• 獻替錄

• 異域歸忠志

逸事

文宗朝時，京師很久沒有下雨，李德裕拜相那一日即下大雨，于是有人替換「裕」為「雨」，稱之李德雨。

李德裕的府上有一名彈琵琶的樂手廉郊，他師從當時的琵琶大師曹綱。他留宿于李德裕在平泉的別墅時，在池塘邊彈琵琶，聽見在池塘中有跳躍的聲音，換了一個調子以後便立刻不再聽見，如果繼續彈舊調，則依舊有聲。

家庭

妻妾

彭城劉氏，系李德裕夫人，原居于茅山燕洞宮，道名致柔。劉氏二十一歲時嫁于李德裕，隨李德裕在地方奔波時水土不服，無醫、藥可尋，大中三年八月二十一日因病去世。李德裕與劉氏成婚四十一年，膝下有三子、二女。

徐盼（807年—829年12月22日），字正定，潤州丹徒縣人。後因病危而信道，改道名天福。李德裕為御史中丞時出鎮金陵，納時為十六歲的徐氏為妾，生子李多聞、李燁。徐氏大和三年于滑州逝世，享年二十三歲，葬于洛陽邙山。

子孫

• 李椅

　• 李袖，少子

• 李渾，比部員外郎

　• 李褒，父親過世後養于叔父李燁家

• 李多聞

• 李燁，第四子，郴尉，宣武軍節度判官、檢校尚書祠部員外郎、兼侍御史。娶滎陽鄭珍

　• 李氏，嫁劉瞻

　• 李殷衡，李氏弟，右補闕，後為南漢宰相

　• 李延古，司勛員外郎

　• 李莊，練師陳氏所出

　• 李懸黎（女），李莊胞妹

• 李巨，庶出

• 李某

• 李氏，嫁左司郎中、史館修撰路綰

七世孫李均，李均與其子李公弼都是進士。李公弼子李熙靖，《宋史》有傳。

注釋

Background

Li Deyu was born in 787, during the reign of Emperor Dezong. His grandfather Li Qiyun (李栖筠) served as the chief imperial censor, and his father Li Jifu would eventually serve as a chancellor during the reign of Emperor Dezong's grandson Emperor Xianzong. It was said that Li Deyu was ambitious in his youth and was studious, particularly concentrating on the Book of Han and the Zuo Zhuan. He, however, did not want to submit to imperial examinations. During Emperor Dezong's Zhenyuan era (785-805), when Li Jifu was in exile, Li Deyu accompanied his father and did not seek an official career.

During Emperor Xianzongs reign

During the reign of Emperor Xianzong, Li Jifu became chancellor, and it was said that because Li Deyu wanted to avoid appearance of impropriety, he did not serve at the office of the imperial censors or one of the three main bureaus of the imperial government. Rather, he served on the staff of various regional governors. In 816, after the chancellor Zhang Hongjing left the chancellor post and became the military governor of Hedong Circuit (河東, headquartered in modern Taiyuan, Shanxi), Zhang invited Li Deyu to serve as a secretary. In 819, when Zhang returned to the capital Chang'an to pay homage to the emperor and subsequently remained at Chang'an, Li Deyu was made an imperial censor with the title Jiancha Yushi (監察御史).

During Emperor Muzongs reign

In 820, Emperor Xianzong died and was succeeded by his son Emperor Muzong. Emperor Muzong made Li Deyu, in addition to his imperial censor position, an imperial scholar (翰林學士, Hanlin Xueshi) as well. It was said that because Emperor Muzong had long heard about Li Jifu while he was crown prince, he had respect for Li Deyu. Soon thereafter, Li Deyu was made Tuntian Yuanwailang (屯田員外郎), a low-level official at the ministry of public works (工部, Gongbu), and continued to be imperial scholar. It was said that because Li Deyu saw that at the time, the imperial relatives were becoming influential and making improper requests, he submitted a petition that requested that imperial relatives be required to meet the chancellors at the Office of the Chancellors, rather than at private homes. Li Deyu was then promoted to be Kaogong Langzhong (考功郎中), a supervisory official at the ministry of civil service affairs (吏部, Libu), and put in charge of drafting edicts.

In 821, Li Deyu was involved in an incident that was considered one of the precipitating incidents of the coming Niu-Li Factional Struggles. At that time, both Li Deyu and Yuan Zhen were involved in power struggles with Yuan's fellow Zhongshu Sheren (中書舍人, mid-level official at the legislative bureau of government (中書省, Zhongshu Sheng)) Li Zongmin, particularly since Li Deyu had long resented Li Zongmin and Niu Sengru for what appeared to be harsh criticism against Li Jifu while Li Jifu was chancellor in the third year of Yuanhe 元和 (803). Meanwhile, Li Zongmin's junior colleague at the legislative bureau, Yang Rushi (楊汝士) and the deputy minister of rites (禮部侍郎, Libu Shilang) Qian Hui (錢徽) were in charge of overseeing the imperial examinations. The military governor Duan Wenchang (a former chancellor) and the imperial scholar Li Shen both made secret pleas to Qian for certain examinees. However, when the results were announced, the examinees that Duan and Li Shen recommended were not given passing results, while among those passing the examinations were Zheng Lang, the brother of the examination bureau (門下省, Menxia Sheng) official Zheng Tan; Pei Zhuan (裴譔) the son of the military governor Pei Du (also a former chancellor); Li Zongmin's son-in-law Su Chao (蘇巢); and Yang Rushi's brother Yang Yinshi (楊殷士). This thus brought a popular uproar, and Duan submitted a report accusing Yang Rushi and Qian of being unfair. When Emperor Muzong requested opinions from the imperial scholars, Li Deyu, Yuan, and Li Shen all agreed with Duan's opinion. Emperor Muzong thus ordered Li Zongmin's colleague Wang Qi (王起) to conduct a re-examination, while demoting Qian, Li Zongmin, and Yang Rushi to be prefectural prefects and deposing 10 of the examinees selected by Qian and Yang Rushi. This was said to be the start of some 30 years of struggles between Li Deyu and his associates (known as the Li Faction) and Li Zongmin and his associates (known as the Niu Faction, named after Niu).

In 822, Li Deyu was himself made a Zhongshu Sheren, and continued to serve as imperial scholar. He was considered a possible chancellor candidate, as well as Niu. In 823, Emperor Muzong made a chancellor, while Li Deyu was sent out of Chang'an to serve as the governor (觀察使, Guanchashi) of Zhexi Circuit (浙西, headquartered in modern Zhenjiang, Jiangsu). Li Deyu believed that this was the machination by then-chancellor Li Fengji to squeeze him out so that Niu could be made chancellor, and thereafter resented Niu and Li Fengji even more.

At the time that Li Deyu was made the governor of Zhexi, Zhexi had just suffered through a plot by the officer Wang Guoqing (王國清) to overthrow Li Deyu's predecessor Dou Yizhi, and it was said that after the plot was over, Dou exhausted the circuit treasury trying to placate the soldiers. It was said that Li Deyu lived frugally, and gave the remainder of his own expense budget to the soldiers, such that while he did not give them all that much, they were satisfied, and that two years after his commission, the treasury was full again. It was also said that he sought to change the ways of the circuit's people, to eliminate customs that were harmful to them. For example, the people of the circuit were superstitious and fearful of evil spirits, such that if close family members were ill, they would abandon their family members. Li Deyu taught the knowledgeable among the people that this was undue superstition, and further punished those who abandoned family members, such that within a few years, this custom was gone. He also catalogued the various temples in the circuit — such that only those that worshipped good historical figures were allowed to remain, while he destroyed 1,010 other temples. He further destroyed 1,460 houses in the mountains so that they could not be used by bandits as operation bases.

During Emperor Jingzongs reign

Emperor Muzong died in 824 and was succeeded by his son Emperor Jingzong. The young Emperor Jingzong was said to be wasteful in his living style, and later in 824 he ordered that Zhexi Circuit submit a number of silver vessels for palace use. Li Deyu petitioned that the order to set aside due to the expenses involved for the circuit. He received no response on his petition, although his subsequent petition to set aside an order for submitting silk was granted. Also in late 824, Wang Zhixing the military governor (Jiedushi) of nearby Wuning Circuit (武寧, headquartered in modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu), requested permission for him to let people take tonsure (i.e., to become Buddhist monks) at Si Prefecture (泗州, in modern Huai'an, Jiangsu), to seek divine favors for Emperor Jingzong. Emperor Jingzong initially agreed. As a result, people were rushing to Si Prefecture to take tonsure, to avoid taxes. Li Deyu submitted an objection and pointed out that if this continued, Zhexi and its Zhedong (浙東, headquartered in modern Shaoxing, Zhejiang) and Fujian (福建, headquartered in modern Fuzhou, Fujian) would lose some 600,000 battle-capable young men, Emperor Jingzong ordered a stop to the practice.

In 825, Li Deyu submitted a six-part petition urging Emperor Jingzong to change his ways entitled the Six Maxims of the Red Screen (丹扆六箴), written in six poems with 12 four-character lines each, pointing out the emperor's inappropriate behavior in six areas and hoping that he would change:

• That he was late to meetings with imperial officials and did not hold them often enough.

• That he was wearing inappropriate clothing.

• That he was requesting too many tributes.

• That he was taking honest counsel lightly.

• That he was close to scoundrels.

• That he was seeking for pleasures in too many places.

Emperor Jingzong issued an edict thanking and praising Li Deyu. It was said that Li Deyu hoped that this would catch Emperor Jingzong's attention and recall him to Chang'an, but Li Fengji, who was still chancellor, prevented that possibility.

During Emperor Wenzongs reign

Prior to chancellorship

Around new year 827, Emperor Jingzong was assassinated and succeeded by his younger brother Emperor Wenzong. In 829, Emperor Wenzong recalled Li Deyu to Chang'an and made him deputy minister of defense (兵部侍郎, Bingbu Shilang). The senior chancellor Pei Du recommended Li Deyu to Emperor Wenzong to be chancellor, but Li Zongmin, who was then deputy minister of civil service affairs, was named chancellor over Li Deyu due to assistance of eunuchs. Thereafter, because Li Zongmin viewed Li Deyu as a threat, Li Deyu was sent out of Chang'an again to serve as the military governor of Yicheng Circuit (義成, headquartered in modern Anyang, Henan). Subsequently, under Li Zongmin's recommendation, Niu, who was the military governor of Wuchang Circuit (武昌, headquartered in modern Wuhan, Hubei) at that point, was recalled to be chancellor in 830, and it was said that Li Zongmin and Niu worked together to eject Li Deyu's allies out of Chang'an; even Pei was sent out of Chang'an to serve as the military governor of Shannan East Circuit (山南東道, headquartered in modern Xiangfan, Hubei).

Later in 830, Li Deyu was moved from Yicheng to Xichuan Circuit (西川, headquartered in modern Chengdu, Sichuan), which had recently suffered from a Nanzhao incursion in 829 and was said to be weak in its defenses. Upon Li Deyu's arrival in Xichuan, he consulted with many old soldiers and officers of Xichuan to quickly familiarize himself with the fronts with Nanzhao and Tufan. He also sought reinforcements, pointing out that Xichuan's forces had been severely weakened. After his requests were granted, Li Deyu also trained the soldiers, built up the defenses of the border forts, and stored emergency food supplies, and it was said that the people of Xichuan, who were previously fearful of another Nanzhao invasion, were pacified.

In 831, Li Deyu sent messengers to Nanzhao to request that Nanzhao return some of the Xichuan people whom Nanzhao had seized during the 829 invasion, and Nanzhao returned 4,000 people.

Late in 831, Li Deyu reported that Xidamou (悉怛謀), the Tufan officer in charge of Wei Prefecture (維州, in modern Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan), surrendered Wei Prefecture, which Tufan had captured from Tang decades earlier, to him. Li Deyu advocated accepting the surrender and using Wei Prefecture as a launch pad for a major campaign against Tufan. Niu opposed, arguing that this was a violation of the peace treaty between Tang and Tufan and that, should a war start, Tufan forces could reach Chang'an easily. Emperor Wenzong accepted his argument and ordered that Li Deyu return Wei Prefecture, as well as Xidamou and his soldiers, to Tufan. Tufan had Xidamou and his soldiers massacred. The massacre brought much popular sentiment against Niu, and was commonly viewed at the time to be the result of the conflict between Niu/Li Zongmin and Li Deyu. It was said that this incident caused Li Deyu to resent Niu even more.

In 832, with Emperor Wenzong regretting his decision in the Xidamou matter, Niu resigned and was made the military governor of Huainan Circuit (淮南, headquartered in modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu). Li Deyu was recalled to Chang'an to serve as minister of defense (兵部尚書, Bingbu Shangshu) and was expected by popular sentiment to be chancellor next. This caused Li Zongmin much apprehension, and he, under the advice of Du Cong, was initially trying to broker a peace with Li Deyu by recommending Li Deyu to be chief imperial censor (御史大夫, Yushi Daifu). However, Li Zongmin subsequently changed his mind under opposition by another associate, Yang Yuqing (楊虞卿).

Chancellorship

In 833, Li Deyu was made chancellor de facto with the designation Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi (同中書門下平章事). When he met with Emperor Wenzong to thank Emperor Wenzong, Emperor Wenzong discussed with him the matter of partisanship within the imperial government, and Li Deyu, seeing that Emperor Wenzong disliked partisanship, opined that one third of the imperial officials were engaging in partisanship — and then proceeded to use Emperor Wenzong's dislike of partisanship to eject people he disliked from the government, including Yan Yuqing and Yang's associates Zhang Yuanfu (張元夫) and Xiao Huan (蕭澣). He was also soon butting heads with Li Zongmin on a number of matters, such as Yang's demotion and Li Zongmin's public derogation of the talents of Zheng Tan and Yin You (殷侑). Later in the year, Li Zongmin was sent out of the capital to serve as the military governor of Shannan West Circuit (山南西道).

Also in 833, when Yang Yuanqing (楊元卿) the military governor of Xuanwu Circuit (宣武, headquartered in modern Kaifeng, Henan) was ill and discussion was made regarding Yang's successor, Li Deyu suggested moving Liu Congjian the military governor of Zhaoyi Circuit (昭義, headquartered in modern Changzhi, Shanxi), to Xuanwu — as the Liu family had been entrenched at Zhaoyi since Liu's father Liu Wu, to eliminate the entrenchment. Emperor Wenzong, believing that it was not yet time to confront Liu Congjian, did not follow Li Deyu's suggestion and instead made former chancellor Li Cheng the military governor of Xuanwu. Meanwhile, at Li Deyu's suggestion, Emperor Wenzong issued a decree that, in addition to creating his son Li Yong crown prince, also ordered that the imperial princes (who had been restricted to living inside the palace complex since the time of Emperor Xuanzong) be allowed to live outside the palace and be given commissions as local officials; that their daughters be married in a prompt manner; and that the imperial examinations no longer test on poetry. (However, the imperial princes' moving out of the palace complex was not implemented due to a dispute over what kind of commissions they would receive.)

However, as of 834, Li Deyu began to incur Emperor Wenzong's displeasure by opposing commissions for Emperor Wenzong's close associate Li Zhongyan, which also offended another associate of Emperor Wenzong's, Zheng Zhu, as well as the eunuch Wang Shoucheng, who had recommended Zheng and Li Zhongyan to Emperor Wenzong. Wang, Zheng, and Li Zhongyan, in order to fight against Li Deyu, had Li Zongmin recalled from Shannan West to again serve as chancellor. Soon thereafter, Li Deyu was himself commissioned to be the military governor of Shannan West, continuing to carry the Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi title as an honorary title. Li Deyu then met with Emperor Wenzong and requested to stay at Chang'an. Initially, Emperor Wenzong agreed, and allowed him to remain at Chang'an to serve as the minister of defense. However, after Li Zongmin objected that this should not be a matter up for Li Deyu to decide, Emperor Wenzong sent Li Deyu out to Zhenghai Circuit (i.e., Zhexi) to serve as military governor, and further did not allow him to retain the Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi title.

After chancellorship

However, Zheng Zhu continued to attack Li Deyu. In 835, Zheng's associates Wang Fan (王璠) and Li Han (李漢) accused Li Deyu of associating with Du Zhongyang (杜仲陽) the wet nurse of Emperor Wenzong's brother Li Cou, formerly the Prince of Zhang (who had, by this point been demoted to be the Duke of Chao County), in order to support Li Cou against Emperor Wenzong. Emperor Wenzong, in anger, summoned a meeting with the chancellors, Zheng, Wang, and Li Han. Li Deyu's colleague as chancellor, Lu Sui, spoke in his defense, so initially, the only consequence that Li Deyu suffered was that he was made Taizi Binke (太子賓客), a member of Li Yong's staff — but sent to have his office at the eastern capital Luoyang, making the title entirely honorary. Subsequently, Lu was himself stripped of his chancellor title and made the military governor of Zhenghai on account of his defending Li Deyu. After Lu's demotion, Li Deyu was further demoted to be the secretary general of Yuan Prefecture (袁州, in modern Yichun, Jiangxi), on charges that he did not visit Emperor Wenzong when Emperor Wenzong was ill and that his tax collection at Xichuan caused the people trouble. When, subsequently, Li Zongmin also incurred Emperor Wenzong's wrath and was exiled as well, Zheng and Li Zhongyan (whose name had been changed to Li Xun at this point) were able to use the opportunity to accuse any imperial official they disliked of being an associate of Li Zongmin or Li Deyu, and those accused were often exiled or demoted.

Late in 835, a plot by Emperor Wenzong, Zheng, and Li Xun to slaughter the powerful eunuchs (later known as the Ganlu Incident) failed, leading to the eunuchs' slaughtering of the imperial officials, including Zheng, Li Xun (who had been made a chancellor by that point), and Li Xun's fellow chancellors Wang Ya, Jia Su, and Shu Yuanyu. After the failure of the plot, in spring 836, Li Deyu was slightly promoted, to be the prefect of Chu Prefecture (滁洲, in modern Chuzhou, Anhui), and it was said that those officials previously exiled or demoted on account of being Li Zongmin's or Li Deyu's associates were beginning to be promoted as well. Soon thereafter, Li Deyu himself was again made the governor of Zhexi.

In 837, Li Deyu was made the deputy military governor of Huainan, to act as military governor, replacing Niu Sengru. When Niu heard that Li Deyu was to succeed him, he entrusted the matters to his deputy Zhang Lu (張鷺) and immediately left the circuit. When Li Deyu arrived, he submitted a report stating that the circuit treasury had only half as much as the wealth as Niu reported, and that Zhang had spent half of the wealth in Niu's absence. Niu submitted a petition defending himself and Zhang and requested that Li Deyu be ordered to recount the treasury reserves. After the recount, Niu's report was deemed correct. Li Deyu submitted an apology, stating that he was ill when first arriving at Huainan and had been lied to by his subordinates, requesting punishment. Emperor Wenzong did not punish Li Deyu, however.

While at Huainan, there was a time when the eunuch monitor of the circuit, Yang Qinyi (楊欽義), was recalled to Chang'an, and there was expectation that he would become one of the directors of palace communications — one of the highest possible positions for a eunuch. Li Deyu, while not publicly showing deference to Yang, invited Yang to a feast and gave him great amounts of treasure as gifts. However, when Yang reached Bian Prefecture (汴州, in modern Kaifeng), Emperor Wenzong changed his order and had him return to Huainan. When Yang returned to Huainan, he, distressed, returned the gifts to Li Deyu, but Li Deyu responded, "These are not worth much," and had Yang keep the gifts, thus establishing a strong relationship with Yang.

During Emperor Wuzongs reign

Before the Huigu campaign

In 840, Emperor Wenzong died and was succeeded by his younger brother, Emperor Wuzong — who was not the choice of Emperor Wenzong (who wanted their nephew Li Chengmei to succeed him) or the chancellors Yang Sifu (whom Emperor Wuzong later believed had supported another brother of his, Li Rong the Prince of An) and Li Jue (whom Emperor Wuzong later believed had supported Li Chengmei), both of whom were considered Niu Faction leaders by later historians — but was chosen by the powerful eunuchs Qiu Shiliang and Yu Hongzhi (魚弘志). As Emperor Wuzong did not trust Yang or Li Jue, he removed them from their chancellor posts, and, as Yang Qinyi had recommended Li Deyu, he decided to recall Li Deyu from Huainan to serve as chancellor.

Upon Li Deyu's arrival in Chang'an, Emperor Wuzong made him Menxia Shilang (門下侍郎), the deputy head of the examination bureau, and chancellor again with the designation Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi. When meeting Emperor Wuzong to thank him, Li Deyu emphasized the importance of entrusting the chancellors with the affairs of state, as well as openness between the emperor and his officials, both points that Emperor Wuzong agreed with.

Soon after Li Deyu became chancellor again, officials considered Yang Sifu's associates, such as Pei Yizhi (裴夷直) and Li Zhongmin (李中敏) were ejected from the imperial government. Nevertheless, in 841, when Emperor Wuzong, still resentful over how Yang and Li Jue did not support him, sent eunuchs to order Yang and Li Jue to commit suicide, with Du Cong pointing out to Li Deyu that he should not encourage Emperor Wuzong to be in the mode of killing officials, Li Deyu, along with fellow chancellors Cui Gong, Cui Dan, and Chen Yixing, interceded on Yang's and Li Jue's behalf, and after much pleading from them, Yang, Li Jue, as well as Pei, were further demoted, but spared of their lives.

The Huigu campaign

Meanwhile, in 840, the Tang ally Huigu's khan Yaoluoge Hesa (藥羅葛闔馺) and its prime minister Jueluowu (掘羅勿) were killed in a major Xiajiasi, and the remaining Huigu forces were thrown into a state of confusion. In the confusion, one group of Huigu nobles supported Yaoluoge Wuxi (藥羅葛烏希) as the new khan (as Wujie Khan), while Yaoluoge Hesa's brother Wamosi took another group of Huigu nobles to the border city of Tiande (天德, in modern Bayan Nur, Inner Mongolia) and offered to submit to Tang. In 841, Tiande's commander Tian Mou (田牟) and eunuch monitor Wei Zhongping (韋仲平), wanting to be credited with victories, suggested not to accept the surrender — arguing that Wamosi was a traitor as far as Wujie Khan was concerned — and to attack. Li Deyu pointed out that Wamosi was no traitor — as he offered to submit before Wujie Khan had even claimed khan title — and that based on the prior Tang-Huigu alliance, distressed Huigu people, such as the people under Wamosi's command, should be accepted. Emperor Wuzong agreed and accepted Wamosi's submission.

Wamosi subsequently requested emergency food relief for the Huigu people, which Li Deyu suggested that Emperor Wuzong accept. At a subsequent meeting called by Emperor Wenzong, Chen Yixing vehemently opposed, arguing that this would be, in effect, aiding the enemy. Li Deyu pointed out regardless of whether Wamosi remained submissive, his people would have to be fed — or otherwise, with Tang forces not ready for combat at that point, Tiande would fall under an attack. Chen did not dare to oppose further, and Emperor Wuzong approved the sending of emergency food supplies to Wamosi's people. Also under Li Deyu's advice, Emperor Wuzong issued an edict to Wamosi asking him to seek out and return Emperor Xianzong's daughter (and thus, Emperor Wuzong's aunt) Princess Taihe, whom Emperor Muzong had married to a prior khan, Chongde Khan, as part of a heqin (marriage alliance) marriage, whom Emperor Wuzong's court had lost contact with since the crushing defeat that Xiajiasi forces inflicted against the Huigu forces. (Unknown to Emperor Wuzong (and Li Deyu) at this point, Princess Taihe had initially been captured by Xiajiasi's khan Are (阿熱), who claimed to be distantly related to Tang's imperial Li clan and who treated her with respect. Are sent a convoy to escort her back to Tang territory, but the convoy was intercepted and destroyed by Wujie Khan, who subsequently took Princess Taihe hostage.)

Meanwhile, one of the circuits on the Huigu border — Lulong Circuit (盧龍, headquartered in modern Beijing), which had long been only nominally under imperial control — was going through internal turmoils of its own, as early in 841, there had been a mutiny that killed the military governor Shi Yuanzhong. The soldiers initially supported the officer Chen Xingtai (陳行泰) to take over the circuit. Emperor Wuzong, under Li Deyu's advice, declined to take immediate action on petitions submitted on Chen's behalf for Chen to become military governor. Soon thereafter, Chen himself was assassinated, and the soldiers supported another officer, Zhang Jiang (張絳) to be their leader. Emperor Wuzong similarly declined to act on petitions on Zhang's behalf. Thereafter, when Lulong officer Zhang Zhongwu, who was then the commander of Xiongwu Base (雄武軍, in modern Chengde, Hebei), requested imperial commission and permission to attack Zhang Jiang, Emperor Wuzong, again under Li Deyu's advice, agreed, and Zhang Zhongwu soon captured Lulong's capital You Prefecture (幽州) and took over the circuit.

Also in 841, when a flood damaged Xiang Prefecture (襄州), the capital of Shannan East Circuit, which Niu Sengru was then the military governor of, Li Deyu used the opportunity to blame the destruction on Niu and had him stripped of his authorities. In spring 842, there was another event that the later Song Dynasty historian Hu Sanxing pointed out showed the partisan side of Li Deyu. The official Liu Gongquan was friendly with Li Deyu, but when Cui Gong recommended Liu to be an imperial scholar to be in charge of Jixian Institute (集賢院), Li Deyu was displeased because this recommendation was not made by him. He therefore found an excuse to have Liu made Taizi Zhanshi (太子詹事) — an entirely honorary post with no authorities.

Also in 842, at Li Deyu's advice, Emperor Wuzong ordered Tian to stop engaging the Huigu irregulars, but instead entice them with food supplies and send them to Hedong Circuit (河東, headquartered in modern Taiyuan, Shanxi) (so that they would not remain at Tiande and be disruptive). Also under Li Deyu's recommendation, the general Shi Xiong was sent to Tiande to assist Tian in defending against Huigu raids.

Meanwhile, Qiu had become very jealous of Li Deyu's hold on power as well. When Emperor Wuzong was planning to issue a general pardon, rumors got to Qiu that, as part of the edict, the chancellors and the director of finances were planning to reduce Shence Army's clothing and food stipends, Qiu publicly declared, "If this occurred, when the pardon is declared, the soldiers will gather in front of Danfeng Tower the tower from which emperors declared pardons) and demonstrate!" Emperor Wuzong, angered by the remarks, sent eunuchs to rebuke Qiu and the other Shence Army officers for spreading rumors, and Qiu apologized.

By summer 842, Wujie Khan was openly attacking Tang border regions. Emperor Wuzong put Li Deyu in charge of drafting various rebukes against Wujie Khan and his advisors, urging them to reconsider their attacks. Also, with Wujie Khan forcing Princess Taihe to submit requests to allow Huigu to borrow Tiande as an operation base, Emperor Wuzong had Li Deyu write her a response back, stating:

Under Li Deyu's advice, Emperor Wuzong subsequently sent Wamosi (who had by this point been granted the Tang imperial name of Li Sizhong) and the general Li Zhongshun (李忠順) to the border to fight against Wujie Khan. Meanwhile, in a surprise attack, in spring 843, Shi inflicted great losses on Wujie Khan's forces and rescued Princess Taihe, after which Wujie Khan fled and would no longer be a threat to Tang. Subsequently, when Emperor Wuzong considered asking Xiajiasi to return Anxi (安西, formerly headquartered in modern Aksu Prefecture, Xinjiang) and Beiting (北庭, formerly headquartered in modern Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Xinjiang) Circuits — which were formerly under Tang control but which had been lost for decades — Li Deyu opposed, pointing out that it would be a logistical nightmare to place garrisons at Anxi and Beiting and supply them. Emperor Wuzong agreed.

With the Huigu campaign over, Li Deyu sought to revisit the Xidamou incident, which had occurred 12 years earlier — submitting a petition that painted Niu as jealous of him and causing a great injustice, and also arguing that Wei Prefecture would have served as a forward attack point against Tufan. At Li Deyu's urging, Emperor Wuzong posthumously honored Xidamou as a general. (It was believed by the modern historian Zhu Gui (朱桂) that Li Deyu was intending to use the revisiting of the Xidamou incident to carry out his vengeance against Niu and Li Zongmin, but that subsequent events — the Zhaoyi campaign — gave Li Deyu even greater ammunition.)

The Zhaoyi campaign

Events of 843

In summer 843, Liu Congjian was growing ill, and he wanted his adoptive son and biological nephew Liu Zhen to succeed him as the military governor of Zhaoyi. Liu Congjian soon died, but Liu Zhen did not announce his death and had petitions written in Liu Congjian's name requesting that Liu Zhen be made military governor. The chancellors largely believed that a campaign against Zhaoyi would be difficult to wage and therefore suggested that the request be granted. Li Deyu, however, argued that Zhaoyi, unlike Lulong and two other circuits north of the Yellow River — Weibo (魏博, headquartered in modern Handan, Hebei) and Chengde (成德, headquartered in modern Shijiazhuang, Hebei) — did not have a tradition of defying the imperial government, and therefore suggested that Liu Congjian's petition be denied, pointing out that allowing the Liu family to continue to hold Zhaoyi would cause other military governors to want to follow suit. He further suggested that, in order to make sure that Weibo's military governor He Hongjing and Chengde's military governor Wang Yuankui would not assist Liu Zhen, explicit promises be made to He Hongjing and Wang that their circuits would not be interfered with, and that they would be responsible for capturing three of Zhaoyi's five prefectures east of the Taihang Mountains, thus making sure that imperial forces would not operate close to Weibo or Chengde. Emperor Wuzong agreed, and imperial messengers were dispatched to Weibo and Chengde; He Hongjing and Wang agreed to follow imperial orders. (Meanwhile, Li Deyu used the opportunity to strike at Li Zongmin — by accusing Li Zongmin of being an associate of Liu Congjian's — and had Li Zongmin sent out of Luoyang to be the prefect of Hu Prefecture (湖州, in modern Huzhou, Zhejiang).

After Liu Zhen finally announced Liu Congjian's death, Emperor Wuzong publicly posthumously honored Liu Congjian, but ordered that Liu Zhen escort Liu Congjian's casket to Luoyang, and further met with Liu Zhen's biological father Liu Congsu (劉從素), telling him to persuade Liu Zhen to accept the order. Liu Zhen refused, and Emperor Wuzong ordered a general campaign against Zhaoyi. At Li Deyu's suggestion, the military governors were ordered to have specific targets to capture within Zhaoyi (to prevent them from waging minor battles and then sitting on the front without truly engaging Zhaoyi forces) — with Wang targeting Xing Prefecture (邢州, in modern Xingtai, Hebei), He Hongjing targeting Ming Prefecture (洺州, in modern Handan), Wang Maoyuan (王茂元) the military governor of Heyang Circuit (河陽, headquartered in modern Jiaozuo, Henan) targeting Ze Prefecture (澤州, in modern Jincheng, Shanxi), and LI Yanzuo (李彥佐) the military governor of Wuning Circuit and Liu Mian (劉沔) the military governor of Hedong Circuit targeting Zhaoyi's capital Lu Prefecture (潞州). When Li Yanzuo subsequently delayed on the way to the front, at Li Deyu's advice, Emperor Wuzong issued harshly worded edicts to push him to proceed, and also made Shi Xiong his deputy to eventually have Shi take over Li Yanzuo's troops. Soon, Shi took over Li Yanzuo's troops and immediately launched attacks against Zhaoyi.

Meanwhile, Wang Yuankui and He Hongjing, on Zhaoyi's eastern front, were having disagreements, with Wang secretly accusing that He Hongjing was purposefully delaying attacks on Zhaoyi. At Li Deyu's suggestion, Emperor Wuzong had Wang Zai the military governor of Zhongwu Circuit (忠武, headquartered in modern Xuchang, Henan) lead additional troops to attack Zhaoyi's eastern prefectures — which would take Zhongwu troops through Weibo. This surprised He Hongjing, who thus felt pressured to attack Zhaoyi, and he finally launched his troops. As soon as He Hongjing launched his troops, Wang Zai's orders were then changed to aid Heyang Circuit, which Liu Zhen was attacking in an effort to force the imperial government into a truce and which Wang Maoyuan could not protect due to his own illness. After Wang Maoyuan died thereafter, at Li Deyu's suggestion, Emperor Wuzong put the Heyang troops under Wang Zai's command as well, but did not make him the military governor of Heyang.

While the campaign was going on, there was a Dangxiang uprising, which attacked Yan Prefecture (鹽州, in modern Yulin, Shaanxi). Li Deyu pointed out that the nomadic Dangxiang were roving pillagers who were not taken seriously by border officials because the border officials wanted to acquire camels and horses from them, and suggested that a command structure be imposed over the six circuits where the Dangxiang resided, with an imperial prince in nominal command. Emperor Wuzong agreed and nominally made his son Li Qi (李岐) the Prince of Yan be the supreme commander of the six circuits and chief comforter of the Dangxiang, and made the official Li Hui Li Qi's deputy, in actual supervision of the Dangxiang situation.

With Wang Zai getting victories over Zhaoyi forces (but unable to capture Ze Prefecture immediately), Liu Zhen had a letter from Li Tian (李恬) the prefect of Ming Prefecture, a cousin to Li Shi, a former chancellor who was by this point the military governor of Hedong, sent to Li Shi, suggesting that Liu was willing to surrender. Li Deyu suggested, and Emperor Wuzong agreed, that no action be taken on the offer immediately, and ordered Li Shi reply in a harsh manner, indicating that surrender would only be accepted if Liu and his family members had themselves bound and taken to the border between Zhaoyi and Hedong; only then would Li Shi agree to escort them to Chang'an.

Events of 844

Meanwhile, the Hedong forces, under the command of the officer Wang Feng (王逢), were stationed at Yushe (榆社, in modern Jinzhong, Shanxi), and Wang sought reinforcements. Hedong headquarters, however, were out of troops, so Li Shi summoned 1,500 soldiers from the northern front, that Liu Mian had previously placed at Hengshui Fence (橫水柵, in modern Datong, Shanxi) during the Huige campaign, under the command of the officer Yang Bian (楊弁), back to Taiyuan, so that he could send them to reinforce Wang. Three days before the Chinese New Year, the Hengshui Fence soldiers arrived, but as the circuit treasury was empty, Li Shi could not give them the silk rewards that the soldiers being sent on a campaign were accustomed to receive; rather, he had to take silk out of his own personal wealth, but was only able to pay half as much. Further, the eunuch monitor Lü Yizhong (呂義忠), then with Wang, was sending messages forcing the soldiers to get underway without staying at Taiyuan for New Year. The soldiers were angry and distressed, and Yang took this opportunity to start an uprising. He had the soldiers pillage the city and take control of the city of Taiyuan. Li Shi was forced to flee to Fen Prefecture (汾州, in modern Linfen, Shanxi). Yang subsequently entered into an alliance with Liu Zhen

In light of Yang's uprising, there were immediate calls among the imperial officials to stop the campaign against Zhaoyi, and even Wang Zai was calling for accepting Liu's surrender. Li Deyu opposed, and again reiterated that Liu's surrender should only be accepted if he and his family bound themselves. Under further advice by Li Deyu, who argued that Yang's uprising could not be tolerated, Emperor Wuzong ordered that the focus of the campaign be shifted, to concentrate on Yang first. To those ends, he ordered Li Shi and Lü to gather troops from nearby prefectures and try to recapture Taiyuan, while ordering Wang Feng to leave Hedong troops at Yushe and instead take troops previously sent by Yiwu (義武, headquartered in modern Baoding, Hebei), Xuanwu, and Yanhai (兗海, headquartered in modern Jining, Shandong) Circuits to head toward Taiyuan. He also ordered Wang Yuankui to divert troops toward Taiyuan as well. This set a panic into the Hedong soldiers at Yushe, who were fearful that the soldiers from other circuits would slaughter their families if Taiyuan fell, so they volunteered to attack Yang with Lü as their commander. In less than a month after Yang took over Taiyuan, the Hedong troops under Lü recaptured the city and arrested Yang, who was subsequently delivered to Chang'an and executed.

Meanwhile, Li Deyu came to believe that, and he informed Emperor Wuzong that, Wang Zai was not putting more pressure on Ze Prefecture for two reasons — because Shi Xiong had been falsely accused by Wang Zai's father Wang Zhixing previously and therefore there was an enmity between the two men (and therefore, Wang Zai was concerned that attacking Ze Prefecture harder would allow Shi to take the chance to capture Lu Prefecture); and that Wang Zai's biological son Wang Yanshi (王晏實), whom Wang Zhixing had adopted as a son and therefore was legally Wang Zai's brother, was the prefect of one of the Zhaoyi prefectures, Ci Prefecture (磁州, in modern Handan) and had been detained by Liu. Emperor Wuzong thus sent Wang Zai an edict in which he again ordered him to advance, and further pressured Wang Zai by moving Liu Mian, who was then the military governor of Yiwu, to Heyang.

Around the same time, Emperor Wuzong had begun to favor a Taoist monk, Zhao Guizhen (趙歸真), despite the advisory officials' advice against it. Emperor Wuzong had to assure Li Deyu that he would not be affected in his policy decisions by Zhao. Meanwhile, Li Deyu was also gaining intelligence information from Zhaoyi officers who surrendered, and was directing Wang Zai, Wang Feng, and He Hongjing in their tactics.

By this point, the Zhaoyi soldiers at Xing, Ming, and Ci Prefectures had been tired out by the war and enraged with Liu Zhen's trusted officer Liu Xi (劉溪), who was collecting taxes even from the soldiers' family members, against the pleas by Liu Congjian's brother-in-law Pei Wen (裴問), whom Liu Zhen had put in charge of the three prefectures. Pei, also angered by Liu Xi and believing the situation to be hopeless, surrendered along with Wang Zhao (王釗) to Wang Yuankui and He Hongjing. At Li Deyu's urging, Emperor Wuzong quickly sent the imperially-commissioned military governor Lu Jun (盧均) to take over the three prefectures, before Wang Yuankui and He Hongjing could consider asking that the three prefectures be annexed to their circuits.

Upon the news of the three prefectures' surrender's arrival in Lu Prefecture, the people of Lu Prefecture became fearful. A group of officers, led by Liu Zhen's trusted officer Guo Yi (郭誼), persuaded Liu that the only way that the Liu clan could be saved was for him to allow them to kill him, present his head to the imperial government, and surrender. Liu thus allowed them to kill him without a fight — and Guo and his followers then nevertheless slaughtered the Liu clan and surrendered to the imperial government.

After the Zhaoyi campaign

Emperor Wuzong immediately inquired of Li Deyu what his opinion was as to how to deal with Guo Yi. Li Deyu argued that Guo was untrustworthy — having been a major advocate of Liu Zhen's resistance of the imperial regime and then eventually betraying Liu — and Emperor Wuzong agreed, despite misgivings by Du Cong, then also chancellor. Emperor Wuzong thus ordered Shi Xiong to enter Lu Prefecture and, under guise that he was going to distribute commissions to Guo and the other officers involved in Liu's death at a feast, had them rounded up and arrested. Guo and the other officers were subsequently delivered to Chang'an and executed. Also under Emperor Wuzong's orders, Shi exhumed Liu Congjian's body and had it publicly displayed then cut into pieces. For Li Deyu's contributions, Emperor Wuzong created him the Duke of Zhao and gave him the honorary title of Taiwei (太尉, one of the Three Excellencies). (Subsequently, Li Deyu requested a different creation because Li Jifu also carried the title of Duke of Zhao, and he was not Li Jifu's oldest son, suggesting that he would prefer the title of Duke of Wei. Emperor Wuzong agreed and change his title accordingly.)

After the Zhaoyi campaign, Li Deyu was becoming even more powerful in Emperor Wuzong's government, but he was also drawing resentment for his harshness. For example, after the end of the campaign, he had Emperor Wuzong issue an edict announcing that the family members of Li Xun, Wang Ya, and Jia Su, who had previously been sheltered by Liu Congjian and Liu Zhen after fleeing to Zhaoyi but whom Guo then executed, had been executed, referring to them as the family members of traitors. He further had the Zhaoyi officers who had previously surrendered list Liu Zhen's collaborators and were slaughtering them in large numbers, even though Lu Jun was arguing that too many people were being innocently killed. He further carried out reprisals against Li Zongmin and Niu Sengru, accusing them of having been in communications with Liu Congjian and Liu Zhen despite the lack of evidence — going as far as having Liu Congjian's secretary Zheng Qing (鄭慶) claim that whenever Liu Congjian received letters from Li Zongmin or Niu, he would read them and burn them. Emperor Wuzong, believing Li Deyu's accusations, had Li Zongmin and Niu demoted and exiled several times, eventually with Niu being made the secretary general of Xun Prefecture (循州, in modern Huizhou, Guangdong), and Li Zongmin stripped of all offices and exiled to Feng Prefecture (封州, in modern Zhaoqing, Guangdong).

In 845, Li Shen, then the military governor of Huainan, accused one of his subordinates, the magistrate of Jiangdu (江都, in modern Yangzhou), Wu Xiang (吳湘), whose uncle Wu Wuling (吳武陵) had long had an adversarial relationship with Li Deyu, of embezzlement and forcibly marrying the daughter of a commoner, Yan Yue (顏悅). Many advisory officials pointed out that the evidence against Wu Xiang was weak, and Emperor Wuzong sent the censors Cui Yuanzao (崔元藻) and Li Chou (李稠) to review the case. Cui and Li Chou reported that Wu Xiang did embezzle funds, but that his father-in-law Yan was not a commoner, nor was the marriage forced. Li Deyu, despite Cui's and Li Chou's report, nevertheless had Wu Xiang executed, and further, retaliating against Cui and Li Chou for their contrary reports, had them demoted and exiled.

Also in 845, apparently with Li Deyu's support, Emperor Wuzong ordered a general reduction in Buddhist and other temples, including those of Zoroastrian, only leaving two temples each at Chang'an and Luoyang, while each circuit and five large prefectures were allowed to retain one temple each. All other temples were destroyed, and the monks and nuns ordered to return to civilian life. The temples' lands were confiscated, while the building material used for the buildings, statues, and bells were seized to build governmental properties and mint money. (This was the third of the Three Disasters of Wu — major persecutions against Buddhism in Chinese history.)

Later in 845, at Li Deyu's suggestion, Emperor Wuzong established a special treasury for the purpose of border defense, setting aside funds for that purpose. Also, when Emperor Wuzong wanted to create his favorite concubine Consort Wang empress, Li Deyu opposed on the grounds that Consort Wang was of low birth and was sonless, so Emperor Wuzong did not do so. It was said that by this point, as Du Cong and Cui Xuan were no longer chancellors, Li Deyu wielded all the chancellor powers, such that even the eunuchs and Emperor Wuzong were becoming displeased with him. When the imperial attendant Wei Hongzhi (韋弘質) suggested that Li Deyu, as chancellor, should not further be in control of the imperial treasury, Li Deyu submitted a defense of himself and had Wei demoted, further angering other officials.

In spring 846, Emperor Wuzong, suffering from the effects of alchemists' pills designing to lead to immortality, became seriously ill, and the eunuchs decided on having Emperor Wuzong's uncle (Emperor Muzong's younger brother) Li Yi the Prince of Guang, who had been considered to be unintelligent, succeed Emperor Wuzong, and thus issued an edict in Emperor Wuzong's name creating Li Yi crown prince and changing Li Yi's name to Li Chen. When Emperor Wuzong thereafter died, Li Chen became emperor (as Emperor Xuānzong), and during the period of mourning, Li Deyu served as regent.

During Emperor Xuānzongs reign

Emperor Xuānzong, however, was far from unintelligent, and had long resented Li Deyu's hold on power. On the day of his enthronement, Li Deyu served as the ceremonial presenter of the congratulatory notes from the imperial officials. After the ceremony was complete, Emperor Xuānzong stated to his attendants: "Was the person approaching me the Taiwei? Whenever he looked at me, my hairs were raised." The day after the mourning period was over, Emperor Xuānzong sent Li Deyu out of the capital to serve as the military governor of Jingnan Circuit (荊南, headquartered in modern Jingzhou, Hubei), continuing to carry the Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi title as an honorary title. It was said that given how long Li Deyu had been in power, it came as a complete shock to all involved that he would be sent out of the capital. Emperor Xuānzong subsequently also had a number of Li Deyu's associates sent out of the capital. Later in the year, the five former chancellors that Emperor Wuzong had exiled — Niu Sengru, Li Zongmin, Cui Gong, Yang Sifu, and Li Jue — were gradually moved closer to Chang'an (although Li Zongmin died before he could be moved). Li Deyu was subsequently made the defender of Luoyang, and no longer carried the honorary title of Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi. In 847, under the further accusations by Li Deyu's successor as chancellor, Bai Minzhong, Li Deyu was made a senior advisor to the crown prince — an entirely honorary title since there was no crown prince at the time — and ordered to have his office at Luoyang.

In fall 847, Wu Xiang's brother Wu Runa (吳汝納) submitted a petition arguing that Wu Xiang was improperly executed and accusing Li Shen and Li Deyu of causing the improper execution. Emperor Xuānzong recalled Cui Yuanzao from exile and had him give an account of the case to the Office of the Imperial Censors, which subsequently submitted a report agreeing that Wu Xiang was improperly executed. As a result, Li Deyu was further demoted and exiled to be the military advisor to the prefect of Chao Prefecture (潮州, in modern Chaozhou, Guangdong). In fall 848, Li Deyu was further demoted to be the census officer at Yai Prefecture (崖州, in modern Haikou, Hainan), where Li Deyu died around the new year 850. It was said that his casket was allowed to be returned to be Chang'an and buried there only after intercession by the chancellor Linghu Tao — who had dreamed of Li Deyu's pleading with him to do so. However, Li Deyu's titles were only posthumously restored in 860, during the reign of Emperor Xuānzong's son Emperor Yizong, at the urging of the official Liu Ye.

Posthumous perception

The lead editor of the Old Book of Tang, the Later Jin chancellor Liu Xu, had this to say about Li Deyu:

On the island of Hainan, Li Deyu has been commemorated in the Temple of Five Lords since the time of the Ming Dynasty.

In fiction

Played by Lau Dan, a fictionalized version of Li Deyu was portrayed in 2009 Hong Kong's TVB television series, Beyond the Realm of Conscience.

Notes and references

• Old Book of Tang, vol. 174.

• New Book of Tang, vol. 180.

• Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 241, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248.