History

In the Spring and Autumn period, Guan Zhong was the first chancellor in China, who became chancellor under the state of Qi in 685 BC. In Qin, during the Warring States period, the chancellor was officially established as "the head of all civil service officials." There were sometimes two chancellors, differentiated as being "of the left" (senior) and "of the right" (junior). After emperor Qin Shi Huang ended the Warring States period by establishing the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC), the chancellor, together with the imperial secretary, and the grand commandant, were the most important officials in the imperial government, generally referred as the Three Lords.

In 1 BC, during the reign of Emperor Ai, the title was changed to da si tu (大司徒). In the Eastern Han dynasty, the chancellor post was replaced by the Three Excellencies: Grand Commandant (太尉), Minister over the Masses (司徒) and Minister of Works (司空). In 190, Dong Zhuo claimed the title "Chancellor of State" (相國) under the powerless Emperor Xian of Han, placing himself above the Three Excellencies. After Dong Zhuo's death in 192, the post was vacant until Cao Cao restored the position as "imperial chancellor" (丞相) and abolished the Three Excellencies in 208. From then until March 15, 220, the power of chancellor was greater than that of the emperor. Later this often happened when a dynasty became weak, usually some decades before the fall of a dynasty.

During the Sui dynasty, the executive officials of the three highest departments of the empire were called "chancellors" (真宰相) together. In the Tang dynasty, the government was divided into three departments: the Department of State Affairs (尚書省), the Secretariat (中書省), and the Chancellery (門下省). The head of each department was generally referred to as the chancellor.

In the Song dynasty, the post of chancellor was also known as the "Tongpingzhangshi" (同平章事), in accordance with late-Tang terminology, while the vice-chancellor was known as the jijunsi. Some years later, the post of chancellor was changed to "prime minister" (首相 shou xiang) and the post of vice-chancellor was changed to "second minister" (次相 ci xiang). In the late Southern Song dynasty, the system changed back to the Tang naming conventions.

During the Mongol-founded Yuan dynasty, the chancellor was not the head of the Secretariat, but the Crown Prince (皇太子) was. After the establishment of the Ming dynasty, the post became the head of the Zhongshu Sheng again. The post was abolished after the execution of Hu Weiyong, who was accused of treason (though his conviction is still strongly disputed in present times because of a lack of evidence to prove his guilt). Still, appointments of the people who held the highest post in the government were called "appointment of prime minister" (拜相) until 1644.

List of chancellors of China

List of chancellors of Shang dynasty

Zhou dynasty

• Jiang Ziya

• Duke of Zhou

• Duke Huan of Zheng

• Duke Zhuang of Zheng

• Guan Zhong of Qi state (died in 645 BC)

• Bao Shuya of Qi state

• Yan Ying of Qi state

• Fan Li of Qi State and Yue state

• Wu Zixu of Wu state

• Bo Pi of Wu state

• Cheng Dechen of Chu state

• Sunshu Ao of Chu state

• Wu Qi of Chu state

• Lord Chunshen of Chu state

• Lord Mengchang of Qi state

• Tian Dan of Qi state

• Li Kui of Wei state

• Hui Shi of Wei State

• Lin Xiangru of Zhao state

• Li Mu of Zhao state

• Su Qin of Yan state

• Yue Yi of Yan state

• Baili Xi of Qin state

• Shang Yang of Qin State

• Zhang Yi of Qin State

Qin dynasty

• Fan Ju

• Lü Buwei (251–238 BCE in office)

• Lord Changping

• Kui Zhuang

• Wang Guan

• Li Si (?–208 BCE in office)

• Feng Quji

• Zhao Gao (208–207 BCE in office)

Han dynasty

• Xiao He (206–193 BCE in office); Chen Xi (197 BCE), over Zhao

• Cao Shen (193–190 BCE in office)

• Chen Ping (190–179 BCE in office)

• Zhou Bo

• Guan Ying

• Zhou Yafu

• Huo Guang

• Shi Dan 史丹 (see Emperor Yuan of Han)

• Wang Mang

• Liu Yan (Bosheng)

• Deng Yu (25–27 in office)

• Wu Han

• Yuan An

• Dou Xian

• Li Gu

• Liang Ji

• Dou Wu

• Chen Fan

• Qiao Xuan

• Cao Song

• Zhang Wen

• Liu Yu

• Dong Zhuo

• He Jin

• Wang Yun

• Ma Midi

• Xun Shuang

• Huangfu Song

• Zhu Jun

• Cao Cao (196-220 in office)

• Cao Pi

Three Kingdoms

Wu

• Sun Shao (221–225)

• Gu Yong (225–243)

• Lu Xun (244–245)

• Bu Zhi (246–247)

• Zhu Ju (249–250)

• Sun Jun (253–256)

• Sun Chen (258)

• Puyang Xing (262–264)

• Zhang Ti (279–280)

Han

• Zhuge Liang (221–234)

• Jiang Wan

• Fei Yi

• Dong Yun

• Jiang Wei

• Dong Jue

• Fan Jian

• Zhuge Zhan

Wei

• Jia Xu

• Hua Xin

• Zhong Yao

• Wang Lang

• Chen Qun

• Dong Zhao

• Cui Lin

• Man Chong

• Jiang Ji

• Cao Shuang

• Sima Yi

• Gao Rou

• Wang Ling

• Zhuge Dan

• Sun Li

• Sima Shi

• Sima Zhao

• Sima Fu

• Wang Chang

• Wang Guan

• Deng Ai

• Zhong Hui

• Sima Yan

• Wang Xiang

• Sima Wang

Sui dynasty

• Gao Jiong

• Li Delin

• Su Wei

• Yang Su

• Yang Guang

• Yang Xiu

• Yang Zhao

• Yang Jian

• Xiao Cong

• Yuwen Shu

• Yu Shiji

• Li Yuan

• Yuwen Huaji

• Wang Shichong

• Li Mi

Tang dynasty

• Li Shimin (618–626 in office) (later Emperor Taizong of Tang)

• Fang Xuanling (626–648 in office)

• Wei Zheng (629–643 in office)

• Cen Wenben (unknown, under Emperor Taizong of Tang)

• Cen Changqian (unknown, under Emperor Gaozong of Tang)

• Cen Xi (unknown, under Emperor Shang of Tang, Emperor Ruizong of Tang and Emperor Xuanzong of Tang)

• Fan Lübing (686–688 in office)

• Di Renjie (691–693, 697–700 in office)

• Yao Chong (698–705, 710–711, 713–716 in office)

• Zhang Jiuling (733–736 in office)

• Li Linfu (734–752 in office)

• Yang Guozhong (752–756 in office)

• Wang Wei (758–759 in office)

• Li Deyu (833–835, 840–846 in office)

Song dynasty

Northern Song

• Fan Zhi (960–964 in office)

• Zhao Pu (964–973, 981–983, 988–992 in office)

• Kou Zhun (1004–1006, 1017–1021 in office)

• Fan Zhongyan (1040–1045 in office)

• Wang Anshi (1067-1075, 1076–1077 in office)

• Sima Guang (1085–1086 in office)

• Fan Chunren (1086– in office)

• Fan Chunli (– in office)

• Zhang Dun (1094–1100 in office)

• Cai Jing (1101–1125 in office)

Southern Song

• Li Gang (1127 in office)

• Zhang Jun (1135–1137 in office)

• Qin Hui (1131–1132, 1137–1155 in office)

• Han Tuozhou (1194–1207 in office)

• Shi Miyuan/Shih Mi-yüan (1207–1233 in office).

• Jia Sidao (1259–1275 in office)

• Chen Yizhong (1275–1276 in office)

• Wen Tianxiang (1275–1278 in office)

• Lu Xiufu (1278–1279 in office)

Ming dynasty

Note: after the death of Hu Weiyong, the title of grand chancellor was abolished. The office of the Grand Secretariat assumed the de facto powers of the chancellery after the reign of the Hongwu Emperor.

• Li Shanchang (1368–1376)

• Hu Weiyong (1376–1380) – The last chancellor of China

• Yang Siqi

• Yan Song (in office 1544–1545)

• Xia Yan (in office 1546–1547)

• Yan Song (2nd time in office 1548–1562)

• Xu Jie

• Gao Gong

• Zhang Juzheng (in office 1572–1582)

• Zhang Siwei

Qing dynasty

The Qing dynasty bureaucratic hierarchy did not contain a chancellor position. Instead, the duties normally assumed by a chancellor were entrusted to a series of formal and informal institutions, the most prominent of which was the Grand Council. Occasionally, however, one minister may have so dominated the government that he comes to be identified, figuratively, as the "chancellor". One example in the late Qing dynasty was Li Hongzhang.

In 1911, the Qing court adopted reforms which, amongst other changes, established the position of Premier. This position existed for less than a year before the Qing government was overthrown.

Premiers after 1911

Gallery

File:韩滉画像.jpg|Han Huang (723–787), Song dynasty painting

File:宋丞相赵普.jpg|Zhao Pu, chancellor of the Song dynasty (964–973, 981–983, 988–992)

File:宋丞相寇莱公准.jpg|Kou Zhun, chancellor of the Song dynasty (1004–1006, 1017–1021)

File:Wang Anshi.jpg|Wang Anshi, chancellor of the Song dynasty (1067–1075, 1076–1077)

File:Sima Guang of Song.jpg|Sima Guang, chancellor of the Song dynasty (1085–1086)

File:秦檜.jpg|Qin Hui, chancellor of the Song dynasty (1131–1132, 1137–1155)

File:史彌遠.jpg|Shi Miyuan chancellor of the Song dynasty (1207–1233)

File:高拱.jpg|Gao Gong, Grand Secretary of the Ming dynasty

File:張居正-清晰版.jpeg|Zhang Juzheng, Grand Secretary of the Ming dynasty (1572–1582)

沿革

宰相最早起源于春秋時期。最早見于《韓非子·顯學篇》：「故明主之吏，宰相必起于州部，猛將必發于卒伍。」戰國時期，宰相的職位在各個諸侯國都建立了起來。

秦朝時，宰相的正式官名為丞相。漢朝與秦朝相仿，一般稱為丞相（金印緺綬，綬紫青色），只是如果稱為「相國」（金印綟綬，綬似綠似紫）的話，地位更高一些，並以御史大夫為副職。漢武帝時，起用了一批儒生當丞相，處理日常行政事務，而政務中心則轉到了內廷。宰相的職權逐漸轉移到了尚書台長官的手中。漢哀帝改丞相為大司徒，東漢由司徒、司空、太尉，號稱三公，共同執政，權臣則多稱「大司馬」。漢獻帝建安十三年（208年），複置丞相，由曹操擔任。

除了朝廷的宰相之外，由於漢朝採用封建與郡縣並行制（也稱作郡國制），因此在地方層級上有許多封國（諸如中山國、北海國、趙國等），行政區地位相當於郡。雖然封國的君主為各諸侯王，但只是傀儡，實質的長官，是皇帝派遣的「國相」，因此王國的國相，實際上相當於郡的太守。此外，各郡國內還有許多縣侯的封國，侯國的國相，在品級上則相當于縣令、縣長。

魏晉時，丞相或相國多為權臣自命，成為了一種篡位奪權的手段。南北朝制度多變，皇帝所與議論政事或委以機密者，即是宰相，官名有中書監、中書令、尚書令、侍中、僕射或將軍。其位最尊、權最大者則為錄尚書事。

隋朝時，隋文帝楊堅創立三省六部制，三省長官內史省的內史令、門下省的納言、尚書省的尚書令合稱為宰相。唐改內史省為中書省，內史令為中書令，納言為侍中。唐高宗後，不置尚書令，以副職尚書左右僕射為尚書省長官，除中書省長官中書令和門下省長官侍中外，以他官加「同中書門下三品」者才是宰相；玄宗開元後，加銜稱「同中書門下平章事」，簡稱同平章事。

宋朝的尚書令和中書令為虛置，以同平章事、侍中為宰相正式官名，以參知政事為副，兩者同議政事，輪流知印、押班、奏事，合稱「宰執」。從漢朝至唐朝，天子待宰相之禮，逐漸降級，宋太祖廢「坐論」之禮，使宰相站立答話，其地位大降。元豐改制，恢復唐朝的三省制度，但三省長官虛設，以副職代之，設宰相二人，首相稱尚書左僕射兼門下侍郎，次相稱尚書右僕射兼中書侍郎；另設門下侍郎、中書侍郎、尚書左右丞為副相。政和時，改左僕射為太宰兼門下侍郎，右僕射為少宰兼中書侍郎。靖康間複改為尚書左僕射兼門下侍郎、尚書右僕射兼中書侍郎。南宋建炎間，再改宰相官名為尚書僕射、同中書門下平章事，副相為參知政事。乾道間又改為尚書左、右丞相，多兼樞密使，統領軍政。

大蒙古國仿效漢制，設立中書省為行政機關，耶律楚材在窩闊台汗時期擔任中書令，位居中書丞相之上。元朝建立後續以中書省為政務中樞，主官中書令由皇太子兼領，不常設，下為中書右左丞相，為常設長官，再下為平章政事，副職為右左丞及參知政事，合稱「宰執」。各地設有行中書省作為朝廷的派出機構，長官為行省丞相。

明初亦設中書省，長官為左右丞相，不設中書令。洪武十三年（1380年），太祖藉由胡惟庸案，罷中書省，廢丞相，由天子親決國政。宰相制度和三省制度遂廢。後皇帝以不勝庶政之繁，設正五品的內閣大學士協理文書。後內閣職位漸重，但大學士有宰相之實，卻無宰相之名，權力受到一定限制，稱輔臣，居首者為首輔。

清沿明制，不設立真正的宰相職務。雍正時設軍機處，內閣成為閒曹，沒有品階的軍機大臣行宰相職責，但沒有獨立的行政權力。清代習慣上稱授正一品殿閣大學士為拜相，但無正式宰相名份。清朝末年，清政府仿效日本改革政治制度，成立以總理大臣為首的責任內閣，取代大學士和軍機大臣。

在所有的官職中，宰相的變化最多，這是由于君主既需要宰相幫助辦理政事，又擔心宰相的權位過重，危及自身的權力。明清以後的大學士及軍機大臣雖有宰相職責，輔助皇帝，但實際上只是皇權的執行者，沒有獨立決策權力。雖有大學士和軍機大臣專權的情況發生，但他們的權力只是來自君主的信任，而非制度本身，相對下地位並不穩固。

與皇權的衝突

很少大有為的皇帝能長期忍受權力過大的相權。因此相權在中國歷史中不斷的被裁減。其中較顯著的變革有三個時期：

• 漢武帝設內廷作為政務中心，逐漸架空以丞相為首的外廷。

• 隋代正式確立三省制；三公取消開府，成為徹底榮譽頭銜。

• 明太祖洪武十三年借胡惟庸案廢中書省和丞相，集君權與相權於一身。

歷代稱謂表

中國的宰相在曆代王朝有不同的稱謂。下表是詳細參照。