Early life

The Yang clan of Hongnong (弘農楊氏) were claimed as ancestors by the Sui Emperors, similar to the Tang Emperors' claim of the Longxi Li clan. Yang Jian's clan claimed descent from the Han Dynasty general Yang Zhen. Yang Zhen's eighth-generation descendant Yang Xuan (楊鉉) served as a commandery governor for a Yan state (Former Yan or Later Yan) during the Sixteen Kingdoms Period, and his descendants subsequently served the Northern Wei Dynasty. Yang Jian's father Yang Zhong (楊忠) followed the late-Northern Wei general Yuwen Tai and later became prominent in the branch successor state of Northern Wei, Western Wei, under Yuwen's regency. Yang Jian's mother Lady Lü gave birth to him at a Buddhist temple in Pingyi (馮翊, in modern Weinan, Shaanxi). A Buddhist nun was impressed with his appearance, and raised him in his early years. Yang Jian attended the imperial college for the sons of the nobility and high officials. When he was 14 years old, he was appointed to serve in the military under Yuwen Tai.

In 555, on account of Yang Zhong's accomplishments, Yang Jian received several official ranks, including the title of the Duke of Chengji County (成紀縣公). In 557, Dugu Xin, impressed with Yang Jian, gave his daughter, Empress Dugu Qieluo, to Yang and made her his wife. He was 16, and she was 13. After Yuwen Tai's son Emperor Ming of Northern Zhou came to the throne later that year, Yang Jian was made the vice minister of internal affairs, and he was created the greater title of Duke of Daxing Commandery (大興郡公). Subsequently, during the reign of Emperor Ming's brother Emperor Wu, Yang Jian was further promoted in military authority. After Yang Zhong's death in 568, he inherited the title of Duke of Sui. In 573, Emperor Wu took Yang Jian's daughter Yang Lihua to be the wife and crown princess of his son Yuwen Yun the Crown Prince, and further honored Yang Jian. It was said that, however, that Yang Jian was so unusual in his appearance that some of Emperor Wu's close associates suspected Yang Jian of eventually harboring treasonous intent. Both Emperor Wu's brother Yuwen Xian the Prince of Qi and the general Wang Gui (王軌) were said to have suggested that Emperor Wu execute Yang Jian, but Emperor Wu resisted. Still, Yang Jian heard rumors and tried to hide his own talent to avoid trouble. It was not until 575 when Emperor Wu involved Yang Jian in a major campaign against rival Northern Qi. Yang Jian also participated in the 576–577 campaign that saw Emperor Wu being able to destroy Northern Qi and seize its territory.

In 578, Emperor Wu died, and Yuwen Yun took the throne as Emperor Xuan. Emperor Xuan immediately began to show erratic behavior, and while he created Yang Jian's daughter Crown Princess Yang empress, he suspected Yang Jian deeply, although he made Yang Jian the minister of defense. In 579, Emperor Xuan passed the throne to his young son Yuwen Chan (by his concubine Consort Zhu Manyue) (as Emperor Jing) and became retired emperor (with the atypical title of "Emperor Tianyuan" (Tianyuan Huangdi), but continued to exercise imperial powers. On one occasion, he became so suspicious of Yang Jian that he stated to Empress Yang, "I will surely slaughter your clan!" He then summoned Yang Jian to the palace, with instructions to kill him if his expressions betrayed any worries, but Yang Jian arrived without showing any unusual emotions, and avoided being killed. On another occasion, Empress Yang displeased Emperor Xuan, and Emperor Xuan ordered her to commit suicide. When Duchess Dugu heard this, she went to the palace to beg Emperor Xuan's forgiveness, and Emperor Xuan eventually spared Empress Yang.

Regency

In summer 581, with Emperor Xuan intending to conquer Chen Dynasty, he sent Yang Jian to be the commandant at Yang Province (揚州, roughly modern Lu'an, Anhui) to prepare for the campaign against Chen. Before Yang Jian could depart, however, Emperor Xuan suddenly grew seriously ill. Two of Emperor Xuan's close associates, Liu Fang (劉昉) and Zheng Yi (鄭譯), who were friends of Yang's, summoned Yang to the palace to prepare to serve as regent, overriding the desire of another closet associate, Yan Zhiyi (顏之儀), to have Emperor Xuan's uncle Yuwen Zhao (宇文招) the Prince of Zhao appointed regent. Emperor Xuan soon died, and Zheng and Liu issued an edict in Emperor Xuan's name appointing Yang regent.

Yang immediately pleased the officials at the capital by abolishing the wastefulness and cruel policies of Emperor Xuan, and he himself demonstrated both hard work and frugality, which impressed the people. Fearful of the intentions of the general Yuchi Jiong, who was then the commandant at Xiang Province (相州, roughly modern Handan, Hebei), he summoned Yuchi back to the capital. Yuchi, however, refused, and believing that Yang's intentions were to usurp the throne, rose at Xiang Province against Yang. He was supported by the generals Sima Xiaonan (司馬消難), the commandant at Xun Province (勛州, roughly modern Xiaogan, Hubei) and Wang Qian (王謙), the commandant at Yi Province (roughly modern Chengdu, Sichuan). However, just 68 days after Yuchi rose in rebellion, the general Wei Xiaokuan defeated Yuchi, and Yuchi committed suicide. Wang was also soon defeated, and Sima fled to Chen. To prevent Yuchi's headquarters at Yecheng to be used again as a base of opposition against him, Yang Jian had Yecheng (Northern Qi's old capital) torn down.

During Yuchi's campaign, Zhou princes like Yuwen Xian Prince of Bi and Yuwen Zhao made attempts to assassinate Yang, but failed. In response, Yang put Yuwen Xian, Yuwen Zhao and Zhao's younger brother Yuwen Sheng (宇文盛) the Prince of Yue and their sons to death, and after Yuchi was defeated, he began to slaughter the Yuwen clan in earnest. He also had Emperor Jing promote his titles quickly, and he changed his surname back to Yang. Around the new year 581, his title was promoted to Prince of Sui (隨王). In spring 581, he had Emperor Jing yield the throne to him, ending Northern Zhou and establishing Sui Dynasty, as its Emperor Wen. (His use of "Sui" as his new dynasty name was typical of Chinese historical dynastic transitions—using the old fief name as the new dynasty's name—but he, believing that the character for his fief Sui (隨) to contain a "辶" radical, denoting "walking" and therefore a lack of permanence in the regime, removed "辶" from the character, rendering it "隋".)

Early Kaihuang era

Emperor Wen abolished Northern Zhou's governmental organization of six departments, instead establishing five main bureaus—executive bureau (Shangshu Sheng (尚書省)), examination bureau (Menxia Sheng (門下省)), legislative bureau (Neishǐ Sheng (內史省)), Palace Library, and eunuch bureau (Neishì Sheng (內侍省—note different tone and character versus 'legislative bureau')), with two additional independent agencies, 11 other independent departments, and 12 military commands. He posthumously honored his father Yang Zhong and mother Lady Lu as emperor and empress. He created his wife Duchess Dugu empress and their oldest son Yang Yong crown prince; he created his brothers and his other sons imperial princes. He initially created Northern Zhou's Emperor Jing the Duke of Jie, but soon slaughtered all grandsons of Yuwen Tai, and eventually put the Duke of Jie to death as well. He entrusted most of the important governmental matters to his officials Gao Jiong, Yang Su, and Su Wei. Agreeing with some officials' assertions that Northern Zhou fell because its imperial princes lacked power to protect the central government, he sent his sons out to key provinces with broad powers. He further commissioned the official Pei Zheng (裴政) to carry out a project of simplifying the penal code and decrease the penalty from the harsh laws—a reform that was later largely accepted by the succeeding dynasties.

Emperor Wen did not maintain as submissive a relationship with the Göktürks, which brought resentment from the Göktürks' Ϊšbara qaγan Ashina Helu. The qaγan's wife, the Xianbei princess Qianjin, Yuwen Zhao's daughter, particularly hated Emperor Wen for destroying the Northern Zhou. Ashina Helu therefore carried out a series of border attacks against Sui, allied with Gao Baoning (高寶寧), the former Northern Qi general who was still holding Ying Province (營州, roughly modern Zhaoyang, Liaoning). In response, under advice from the general Zhangsun Sheng (長孫晟), Emperor Wen carried out the strategy of placating Ashina Helu's subordinate qaγans—his uncle Datou Khan Ashina Dianjue (阿史那玷厥), cousin Abo Khan Ashina Daxianbian (阿史那大暹便), and brother Ashina Chuluohou (阿史那處羅侯) – to create dissension within the Göktürks, and gradually, the strategy worked, causing the Göktürks to be unable to take unified actions against Sui.

In 581, Emperor Wen commissioned a major attack on Chen, and while it was initially successful, Emperor Wen withdrew the attack in spring 582 after hearing that Emperor Xuan of Chen had died and believing it wrongful to attack a state whose emperor had just died.

In 582, believing that Chang'an was too small of a city, Emperor Wen built a new capital nearby, which he named Daxing, and in spring 583 he moved the capital to Daxing. (From that point forward, Daxing and Chang'an became interchangeable names, although by the time of succeeding Tang Dynasty, the new capital was known again just as Chang'an.)

Also in 582, Emperor Wen, thankful for the refusal by the vassal Emperor Ming of Western Liang to support Yuchi Jiong in 580, withdrew his forces from Western Liang's capital Jiangling, permitting Western Liang a degree of self-governance. He also took Emperor Ming's daughter as the wife and princess to his son, Yang Guang the Prince of Jin. (After Emperor Ming's death in 585 and succession by his son Emperor Jing of Western Liang, however, Emperor Wen reestablished the post of commandant of Jiangling and again put Western Liang territory under military control.)

By spring 583, the Göktürks' internal dissension had become serious enough that Emperor Wen felt comfortable enough to commission his brother Yang Shuang (楊爽) the Prince of Wei to command a major attack against Ashina Shetu. Yang Shuang achieved a great victory, and part of his army, commanded by the general Yin Shou (陰壽), defeated Gao, forcing Gao to try to flee to the Qidan, but on the way, Gao was killed by his own subordinates, ending the last bit of Northern Qi resistance. After the defeat, the various subordinate khans further engaged in battles among themselves and against Ashina Shetu, with Sui watching by, refusing to give aid to any side. By 584, Ashina Shetu submitted to Sui, and even the resentful Princess Qianjin referred to Emperor Wen as "father." He created her the Princess Dayi.

In summer 584, believing that the Wei River, on account of its sandbars and treacherous waters, was becoming too difficult of a route for food transport to Daxing, commissioned the official Yuwen Kai (宇文愷) to construct a canal between Daxing and Tong Pass, parallel to the Wei River, named the Guangtong Canal (廣通渠), greatly easing the transport of food and other supplies to the capital region Guanzhong. Nevertheless, on account of a famine in Guanzhong in fall 584, Emperor Wen briefly took up residence in Luoyang.

In 586, the officials Liang Shiyan (梁士彥) the Duke of Cheng, Yuwen Xin (宇文忻) the Duke of Qi, and Liu Fang the Duke of Shu—all three of whom were friends of Emperor Wen but all of whom believed that they had been slighted by Emperor Wen—were accused of plotting rebellion, and all three were executed.

In spring 587, continuing his canal-building regime, Emperor Wen built the Shanyang Canal (山陽瀆) between the Yangtze River and the Huai River to improve the transport of material between those two rivers.

In fall 587, Emperor Wen summoned Western Liang's Emperor Jing to Chang'an to meet him. Emperor Jing complied with the direction. While Emperor Jing was away, however, Emperor Wen, believing that Jiangling would not be guarded well, sent his general Cui Hongdu (崔弘度) to Jiangling. Emperor Jing's uncle Xiao Yan (蕭巖) the Prince of Anping and Xiao Huan (蕭瓛) the Prince of Yixing instead believed that Cui was intending to attack the city, and they took the populace of the city and surrendered to the Chen general Chen Huiji (陳慧紀), the cousin to Chen's emperor Chen Shubao. In response, Emperor Wen abolished Western Liang, directly seizing its territory, while creating Emperor Jing the Duke of Ju. Emperor Wen, who had been planning to conquer Chen for years, now further enhanced his planning in earnest. In spring 588, Emperor Wen publicly announced a campaign against Chen, commanded by Yang Guang, another of his sons Yang Jun the Prince of Qin, and Yang Su, with Yang Guang in overall command. Gao Jiong served as Yang Guang's assistant.

In spring 589, the Sui general Heruo Bi (賀若弼) crossed the Yangtze at Jingkou (京口, in modern Zhenjiang, Jiangsu), and the Sui general Han Qinhu (韓擒虎) crossed the Yangtze at Caishi (採石, in modern Ma'anshan, Anhui). Meanwhile, Yang Su was advancing from the west down the Yangtze, and Yang Jun was stationed in the middle Yangtze region, cutting off any Chen forces that might have been able to come to the aid of Chen's capital Jiankang. Heruo soon defeated and captured the Chen general Xiao Mohe, who was making a final attempt to repel Heruo and Han's forces from Jiankang, and Jiankang fell immediately after. Chen Shubao was captured but not harmed. Rather, he and his clan members were transported to Chang'an, where Emperor Wen treated them as honored guests. Some Chen generals briefly resisted, but soon the Sui had control. The Southern and Northern Dynasties period was over, and Sui had united China. Much as how he had torn down Yecheng after Yuchi defeat, Emperor Wen tore down Jiankang, establishing only a minor garrison at the nearby Shitou as Jiang Province (蔣州).

Late Kaihuang era

In 590, apparently jealous of the talent of the official Li Delin, who had been key in his takeover of power as regent and who had contributed to the strategies in conquering Chen, Emperor Wen, believing in several false accusations against Li, removed Li from his office and made him a provincial governor. Li would not return to the central government for the rest of his life.

After Chen was conquered, Sui began to apply its laws over Chen's former territory—which brought resentment from the gentry, as they had been treated preferentially under Chen and its predecessor dynasties in the south. Su Wei further wrote a work known as the Five Teachings (五教, Wu Jiao) which is no longer extant but thought to be a work about loyalty to Sui and ordered that all former Chen subjects read and memorize it, leading to further resentment. When a rumor spread that Sui would move Chen subjects into the Guanzhong region in 590, nearly all of former Chen realm rose in rebellion, but in an unorganized manner. Emperor Wen sent Yang Su to quell the rebellions, and the rebels were no match for Yang Su; within the year, the rebellions were put down.

In 591, Tuyuhun sought peace and, as per custom, its khan Murong Shifu (慕容世伏) offered his daughter to be a concubine for Emperor Wen. Emperor Wen accepted the peace offer but declined the offer of Murong Shifu's daughter. (It was, however, around this time that he did take Chen Shubao's sister and another woman from Jiankang, Consort Cai, as concubines, although it appeared likely that Consort Cai was never able to have sexual relations with Emperor Wen while Empress Dugu was alive; Consort Chen, as the sister of a submissive former sovereign, might have had sexual relations with Emperor Wen on an infrequent basis, but it is not clear.)

In spring 592, the official He Tuo (何妥), who, despite his senior status over Su Wei's son Su Kui (蘇夔), was losing out against Su Kui over a debate as to the designation of official music styles for Sui. In anger, He Tuo accused Su Wei of factionalism, and after investigation by Emperor Wen's son Yang Xiu and the official Yu Qingze (ted zhang), Su Wei was removed from office. After Su Wei's removal, Yang Su and Gao Jiong became effectively the co-prime ministers. When Heruo Bi, who believed that he should have been prime minister, complained, Emperor Wen removed him from his post as well and stripped him of his ducal title, but restored the ducal title a year later. (Su Wei, however, was back in his post at the latest by 595.)

Also in 592, Emperor Wen, reacting to an overflowing abundance of food and silk in the governmental stores, reduced the taxes heavily, and he also sent messengers around central China, redistributing land to give the poor farming land.

In 593, Emperor Wen commissioned a summer vacation palace, Renshou Palace (仁壽宮, in modern Linyou County, Shaanxi), away from Chang'an, with Yang Su in charge of the project. The palace was far more luxurious than Emperor Wen expected, and its construction cost many lives. (When it was completed in spring 595 and Emperor Wen visited the palace, he was initially very displeased with Yang Su, but Empress Dugu persuaded him that Yang Su knew that he had little other entertainment, and she awarded Yang Su much treasure to show appreciation.)

Also in 593, knowing that the Princess Dayi was still resentful of him, Emperor Wen had the official Pei Ju inform the cousin and subordinate khan to the Göktürks' Dulan Khan, Ashina Yongyulü, the Tuli Khan Ashina Rangan (son of Ashina Chuluohou) that he would let Ashina Rangan marry a Sui princess if Ashina Rangan was able to get Princess Dayi killed. Ashina Rangan, in response, accused Princess Dayi of adultery, and Ashina Yongyulü killed her and requested another marriage with Sui. Instead, Emperor Wen agreed to marry a princess to Ashina Rangan, in order to create greater friction between them.

In 594, in response to another famine in the Guanzhong region, Emperor Wen again temporarily took up residence in Luoyang. He also, to share in some of his people's suffering, abstained from meat for a year.

Late in 594, Yang Guang submitted a petition that Emperor Wen carry out the ancient ceremonies of worshipping the heaven and earth gods at Mount Tai. Emperor Wen declined to carry out a full set of ceremonies due to its costs, but in spring 595 carried out an abbreviated version to seek blessings from the gods due to the ongoing drought.

Also in spring 595, Emperor Wen ordered that no weapons be held by private individuals and that all of them be collected and destroyed, although he exempted the border provinces from this edict.

In 596, Emperor Wen created a daughter of a clansman the Princess Guanghua and married her to Murong Shifu, to cement the peaceful relations with Tuyuhun.

In 597, Cuan Wan (爨翫), the chief of the Nanning Tribe (南寧夷, located in modern Qujing, Yunnan), rebelled. Emperor Wen sent the general Shi Wansui (史萬歲) the Duke of Taiping against Cuan, forcing him to surrender. Initially, Shi was to take Cuan to Chang'an to be presented to Emperor Wen, but Cuan bribed Shi, and so Shi allowed him to stay. Also in 597, Li Guangshi (李光仕), the chief of the aborigine people in Gui Province (桂州, roughly modern Guilin, Guangxi), also rebelled. Emperor Wen sent the generals Wang Shiji (王世積) and Zhou Fashang (周法尚) against Li, and Zhou was able to defeat and kill Li. However, in the fall, Li Shixian (李世賢), who might have been related to Li Guangshi, rebelled at Gui Province, and Emperor Wen sent Yu Qingze the Duke of Lu to attack Li Shixian; Yu was successful in suppressing the rebellion. Subsequently, however, Yu's brother-in-law Zhao Shizhu (趙什住), who had an affair with Yu's concubine, falsely accused Yu of treason, and around the new year 598, Yu was executed.

Also in 597, Emperor Wen felt that the punishment for official misconduct was too light, and authorized that supervising officials would be permitted to batter their subordinates with large canes if they felt that the legally prescribed punishment was too light in comparison to the degree of misconduct. Further, also believing that there was too much theft and robbery throughout the realm, he increased the punishment for theft to death—a law that he subsequently abolished.

Also in 597, Emperor Wen's son Yang Jun the Prince of Qin, the commandant at Bing Province (并州, roughly Taiyuan, Shanxi), was poisoned, but not to death, by his jealous wife Princess Cui. After Yang Jun was taken back to Chang'an for treatment, Emperor Wen discovered that Yang Jun had been wasteful at his post, and removed him from all of his offices, allowing him to only retain the title of imperial prince. When Princess Cui's poisoning was discovered, Emperor Wen ordered Yang Jun to divorce her, and subsequently ordered her to commit suicide. When Liu Sheng (劉昇) and Yang Su suggested that the punishment against Yang Jun was overly severe, Emperor Wen responded to Yang Su:

:I am the father of just five sons, not the father of all people over the land. If I agreed with you, does that mean I have to draft a Penal Code for the Emperor's Sons? Even a man as kind as the Duke of Zhou executed his brothers, the lords of Guan and Cai, for their crimes. I am nowhere as capable as the Duke of Zhou, so I can break my own laws?

Also in 597, Ashina Rangan arrived at Chang'an, and Emperor Wen gave him the daughter of a clansman, whom he created the Princess Anyi, to be his wife, and awarded Ashina Rangan with much treasure, to try to break the bond between him and Ashina Yongyulü. From this point on, whenever Ashina Yongyulü would prepare to attack, Ashina Rangan would report his plans to Emperor Wen, allowing Sui forces to become prepared.

In 598, King Yeongyang of Goguryeo attacked Ying Province, and while the governor of Ying Province, Wei Chong (韋沖), fought off the Goguryeo attack, Emperor Wen was angered. He sent his son Yang Liang the Prince of Han and Wang Shiji to serve as commanding generals, with Gao Jiong serving as Yang Liang's assistant, and the former Chen general Zhou Luohou (周羅睺) serving as the commander of the navy, to attack Goguryeo. However, the forces ran into food supply problems, and the ships ran into a storm and suffered great losses. Both at sea and on the ground, Goguryeo forces inflicted heavy losses on the Sui forces. Nevertheless, King Yeongyang ceased his raids into China and so Emperor Wen called off the campaign against Goguryeo, unable to commit yet another enormous force to punish Goguryeo after the recent losses. As King Wideok of Baekje offered assistance to Sui during the campaign, this precipitated a conflict between Goguryeo and Baekje.

Also in 598, Cuan Wan rebelled again, and Yang Xiu accused Shi of accepting bribes from Cuan earlier. Emperor Wen considered executing Shi, but ultimately chose only to remove him from his posts, and it appeared soon after Shi was restored to his post.

In 599, after Ashina Rangan reported that Ashina Yongyulü was planning to attack, Emperor Wen took preemptive action and had Gao Jiong, Yang Su, and Yan Rong (燕榮) command a three-pronged attack against Ashina Yongyulü, with Yang Liang in nominal command but not at the frontline. In response, Ashina Yongyulü and Ashina Dianjue made a joint attack against Ashina Rangan, defeating him and largely seizing his tribe. Ashina Rangan fled to Sui, and Emperor Wen treated him as an honored guest. Subsequently, both Gao Jiong and Yang Su engaged Göktürk forces and repelled them.

Also in 599, with Wang Shiji's subordinate Huangfu Xiaoxie (皇甫孝諧) accusing Wang of treason after Wang refused to shield Huangfu after he committed crimes, Emperor Wen believed Huangfu and executed Wang.

By this point, Yang Yong the Crown Prince had lost the favor of both Emperor Wen and Empress Dugu, over his being overly wasteful (which displeased Emperor Wen) and having many concubines (which displeased Empress Dugu). They therefore considered deposing him and replacing him with Yang Guang. When Empress Dugu hinted as such, Gao Jiong stated clear opposition. Meanwhile, Emperor Wen himself had engaged in sexual relations with Yuchi Jiong's granddaughter, who had been made a servant after her grandfather's defeat—and when Empress Dugu found out, she had Yuchi Jiong's granddaughter killed. Emperor Wen was exceedingly angry and rode away from the palace on a horse, returning to the palace only at the urging of Gao and Yang Su—but with Gao further angering Empress Dugu when Gao referred to her as "a woman." In 599, Gao was accused of associating with Wang Shiji and removed from his posts. Subsequently, Gao was accused of cursing Emperor Wen, but when the sentence of death was recommended, Emperor Wen commented that he could not kill Gao soon after killing Yu and Wang, and therefore only reduced Gao to commoner rank.

In winter 599, Emperor Wen created Ashina Rangan Qimin Khan, and commissioned Zhangsun Sheng to build the city of Dali (大利, in modern Hohhot) to house Ashian Rangan's people, and also sent an army to protect Ashina Rangan. By now, the Princess Anyi had died, and Emperor Wen married another daughter of a clansman, whom he created the Princess Yicheng (義成公主), to marry Ashina Rangan. Soon thereafter, Ashina Yongyulü was assassinated, and Ashina Dianjue declared himself Bujia Khan. In summer 600, Ashina Dianjue attacked Ashina Rangan, and Sui forces fought off Ashina Dianjue's attack, further causing Ashina Rangan to be grateful to Sui.

In fall 600, with Yang Guang and Yang Su forming a faction, with tacit support of Empress Dugu, they had Yang Yong's associate Ji Wei (姬威) falsely accuse Yang Yong of plotting treason. Emperor Wen deposed Yang Yong and replaced him with Yang Guang. Emperor Wen also put a number of officials whom he believed to be part of Yang Yong's faction, including Shi and Yuan Min (元旻) the Duke of Wuyuan, to death.

Renshou era

In 602, Empress Dugu died, and Emperor Wen was greatly saddened. Thereafter, he began to engage in sexual relations with his concubines, favoring Consort Chen and Consort Cai.

Also in 602, Yang Guang, believing that Yang Xiu would eventually create trouble for him, had Yang Su collect evidence of Yang Xiu's wastefulness and use of items that were only appropriate for emperors. Yang Su submitted the evidence to Emperor Wen, and Emperor Wen, in anger, recalled Yang Xiu to the capital. After Yang Xiu arrived at the capital, Yang Guang further manufactured evidence that Yang Xiu had cursed Emperor Wen and Yang Liang. In anger, Emperor Wen reduced Yang Xiu to commoner rank and put him under house arrest.

In 603, Ashina Dianjue, faced with rebellions from the Tiele and Pugu (僕骨) tribes, surrendered to Ashina Rangan. By now, Ashina Rangan became the undisputed khan of the Göktürks.

In spring 604, Emperor Wen, as per his custom, went to Renshou Palace to avoid the heat, despite warnings from the sorcerer Zhangchou Taiyi (章仇太翼) that if he went, he would never return. While there, he grew ill, and in fall 604, he died. He was buried at the Yangling District's Tailing (泰陵) tumulus mausoleum, with Empress Dugu (though not in the same burial chamber).

How Emperor Wen died, however, is a matter of historical controversy. Most traditional historians relay and believe an account in which, while Emperor Wen was ill, Yang Guang tried to rape Consort Chen. When she reported the attempted rape to Emperor Wen, he became angry and had the officials Liu Shu (柳述, the husband of his daughter Yang Awu (楊阿五) the Princess Lanling) and Yuan Yan (元巖) the Duke of Longgu summon Yang Yong, intending to restore him. When Yang Guang found out, he, in association with Yang Su, had Liu and Yuan arrested, and then sent his associate Zhang Heng (張衡) to kill Emperor Wen, and Zhang did so. Soon thereafter, he forced Consorts Chen and Cai to become his concubines and had Yang Yong put to death, and only then announced Emperor Wen's death and took the throne (as Emperor Yang).

The historian Sima Guang, in his Zizhi Tongjian, borrowing parts of analyses from the Book of Sui and the History of the Northern Dynasties, opined:

Emperor Wen also established seven orchestras comprising musicians from across Asia at his court; these orchestras were expanded to nine by his son Emperor Yang of Sui.

Family

Consorts and Issue:

• Empress Wenxian, of the Henan Dugu clan (文獻皇后 河南獨孤氏; 544–602), personal name Jialuo (伽羅)

　• Princess Leping (樂平公主; 561–609), personal name Lihua (麗華), first daughter

　　• Married Yuwen Yun (559–580) in 573, and had issue (one daughter)

　• Princess Xiang (襄公主)

　　• Married Li Changya, Duke Heyang (李長雅)

　• Yang Yong, Prince of Fangling (房陵王 楊勇; 568–604), first son

　• Yang Guang, Emperor Yang (煬皇帝 楊廣; 569–618), second son

　• Princess Guangping (廣平公主)

　　• Married Yuwen Jingli, Duke Ande (宇文靜禮), and had issue (two sons)

　• Yang Jun, Prince Xiao of Qin (秦孝王 楊俊; 571–600), third son

　• Unnamed daughter

　• Yang Xiu, Prince of Shu (蜀王 楊秀; 573–618), fourth son

　• Princess Lanling (蘭陵公主; 573–604), fifth daughter

　　• Married Wang Fengxiao (王奉孝; d. 583) in 580

　　• Married Liu Shu of Hedong, Duke Jian'an (河東 柳述) in 585

　• Yang Liang, Prince of Han (漢王 楊諒; 575–605), fifth son

• Furen, of the Yingchuan Chen clan (宣華夫人 潁川陳氏; 577–605)

• Furen, of the Cai clan (容华夫人 蔡氏)

Ancestry

生平經歷

出生

楊堅于西魏大統七年六月十三癸丑夜（541年7月21日）生于馮翊般若尼寺，寺中女尼智仙為其取乳名「那羅延」，在梵語中意為「金剛不壞」。楊堅之父是西魏隨國公、北周柱國、大司空楊忠，生母呂氏。其妻獨孤皇后為北周時八大柱國之一獨孤信之女獨孤伽羅（梵語：तगर/Tagara，意為「黑沈香」）。

其長女嫁北周宣帝（宇文贇）為後，地位顯赫。楊堅在北周時曾官拜驃騎大將軍，又封為大興郡公，後襲父爵柱國，北周武帝時任隋州刺史，參加過北周滅北齊之戰。

奪取政權

楊堅壯年時曾隨北周武帝（宇文邕）伐滅北齊統一華北，不久後武帝于宣政元年（578年）病逝，北周宣帝（宇文贇）即位。北周宣帝行為乖戾，誅殺元老重臣，將國政交給東宮的舊僚鄭譯，引起朝野恐慌。大成元年（579年）二月十九日，宇文贇下詔傳位于僅7歲的長子宇文闡（北周靜帝），並改年號為大象，自稱天元皇帝。

大象二年（580年）3月31日，北周靜帝宇文闡任命隨國公楊堅世子楊勇為洛州總管、東京小塚宰，統轄故北齊舊地。在先前的2月20日，罷左、右丞相之官，改楊堅為大丞相。

大象二年（580年）5月11乙未日（6月8日），北周宣帝病逝。近臣劉昉、鄭譯等和楊堅有舊，並且楊堅有「重名」，矯詔謀引楊堅輔政。據記載楊堅開始是：「固辭，不敢當」。但是劉昉警告他：「公不為，昉自為之」，楊堅遂接受此建議，之後鄭譯等對北周宣帝病逝的死訊秘不發喪，便以太上皇的名義假傳聖旨，以楊堅為總知中外兵馬事，楊堅于是集軍政大權于一身。

宣帝胞弟宇文贊為右大丞相，貌似尊崇，其實無實權，宇文贊本人年未及二十，見識庸劣，在劉昉蠱惑下，回府不理政事。楊堅手握軍權後，恐北周諸王在外叛變，假借護送千金公主出嫁突厥為由，召趙王宇文招、陳王宇文純、越王宇文盛、代王宇文達、滕王宇文逌進京朝見，並除去軍權。

楊堅等人秘不發喪和假傳聖旨的主張最初被司書上士顏之儀反對，但劉昉自知不能使顏之儀屈服，就代他簽字，各諸衛在接到假詔書的情況下，軍權就完全被楊堅控制。其後，楊堅又向顏之儀索取皇帝符節玉璽，但遭拒絕，遂大怒，想斬了顏之儀，但顧慮到顏之儀在民間聲望很高，便把他貶到西邊當郡守。

楊堅專政後不久，相州總管尉遲迥發兵討伐楊堅，關東諸州群起響應，益州總管王謙也起兵進攻楊堅。楊堅派出韋孝寬、王誼等迅速平定叛亂，後又盡殺周室諸王。尉遲迥起兵時奉趙王宇文招留在趙國的幼子號令，宇文泰侄孫滎州刺史邵國公宇文胄響應，為楊素所敗被殺。尉遲迥兵敗後，宇文招幼子下落不明。

大象二年（580年）六月，明帝子雍州牧畢王宇文賢與五王（即宇文泰尚在世的五個兒子）謀殺楊堅，事洩，楊堅殺宇文賢及其三子，但對五王不問。七月，趙王宇文招布下鴻門宴，企圖密謀暗殺楊堅，于是把楊堅邀請到寢室飲宴，命兒子宇文員、宇文貫以及王妃弟弟魯封等身帶佩刀站在左右，帷席之間都暗藏了兵器，在室後埋伏了壯士打算乘勢刺殺楊堅。不料在楊堅身邊心腹拓跋胄的掩護下沒能成功。12月31日，楊堅在得知趙王宇文招想謀殺他，便誣陷趙王宇文招及越王宇文盛謀反，趙王和越王的諸子也皆被楊堅一起誅殺。十二月，又殺宇文泰僅剩的兩個兒子代王宇文達、滕王宇文逌及二人諸子。同年並殺宇文泰孫冀王宇文絢。

大象二年（580年）12月2日，北周靜帝宇文闡晉升隨國公、大丞相楊堅為相國，總管全國文武百官；撤銷全國都督、大塚宰之號稱號，晉封隨王，以安陸等二十郡為隨國採邑，啟奏時不再稱名，享有九錫之禮；隨國公、大丞相楊堅虛心「謙讓」僅接受王爵和十郡作為採邑。直到大象三年（581年）2月4日，隨王楊堅才接受了北周靜帝宇文闡所賞賜的相國、總管全國文武百官、九錫之命，立隨國文武百官。

大象三年（581年）2月14日，北周相國、隨王楊堅「順應人心」逼迫北周靜帝宇文闡讓出皇位登基，于是北周靜帝下詔禪讓，移居其他宮殿。2月19日，楊堅大開殺戒，把北周宇文皇族諸子全部屠之，李德林一再規勸卻遭楊堅一句「君書生，不足與議此！」所拒，于是北周太祖宇文泰的孫兒譙公宇文乾惲；北周閔帝宇文覺孫紀公宇文湜；北周明帝宇文毓諸子酆公宇文貞、宋公宇文寔；北周武帝宇文邕諸子漢公宇文贊、秦公宇文贄、曹公宇文允、道公宇文充、蔡公宇文兌、荊公宇文元；北周宣帝宇文贇諸子萊公宇文衎、郢公宇文術等13人及他們的兒子們皆被處死。而李德林也因與楊堅意見不合，官職爵位從此沒能升過。大定元年二月十四甲子日（581年3月4日），楊堅便以「受禪」的名義篡位稱帝，受冊、玉璽，改戴紗帽、身穿黃袍；入御臨光殿，改國號為「大隋」，定都大興，是為隋朝也，改元開皇，大赦天下。

楊堅廢北周靜帝，自立為帝，改元開皇，建立隋朝。從他專政到稱帝，前後不過10個月時間，「得國之易，無有如楊堅者」，楊堅之所以能這麼快稱帝，與北周末期軍政大權遷移于漢族人、受到漢族官員歡迎、北周府兵強大有關。

5月9日，楊堅又暗中派人殺死介公宇文闡（年僅9歲），後表示大為震驚，發布死訊，隆重祭悼，葬于恭陵。同年，楊堅又殺宇文泰侄曾孫豳國公宇文洽、宇文洽叔父杞國公宇文椿及其諸子等。宇文椿弟天水郡公宇文眾不聰明不大說話，楊堅一度視其為繼任介國公人選，但最終仍殺宇文眾及其諸子，而另找遠支族人宇文洛繼嗣。

北防突厥

隋文帝在北防突厥（隋與突厥之戰）成功後，603年，隋朝擊敗占據漠北的達頭可汗，次年，啟民可汗稱隋朝皇帝為聖人可汗，南遷的突厥部眾成為隋朝的屬國。隋文帝為歸附的啟民可汗率領的突厥人築金河、定襄二城于河套。

統一全國

楊堅平定叛亂之後，因為位于江陵一隅之地的西梁弱小且長期依附北朝，其統一天下的對手只剩下南方的陳朝。開皇七年九月十九辛卯日（587年10月26日），廢西梁後主蕭琮，西梁亡。

陳朝的兵力非常薄弱，據估計，只有十萬人。 楊堅即位後，派賀若弼鎮廣陵、韓擒虎鎮廬江，密謀滅陳。又派兵在陳國農時騷擾對方，縱火燒毀他們積蓄的糧食物資。開皇八年（588年），以楊廣出六合、楊俊出襄陽、楊素帶領水軍出永安，共五十一萬八千大軍，三路大軍伐陳。八年十二月楊素沿長江擊破陳的沿江守軍，順流而東。但因為施文卿、沈客卿等扣留告急文書，導致陳朝無法把大軍從建康調出。

九月，賀若弼和韓擒虎攻下京口、姑蘇。沿江守軍望風而逃，在建康城外陳軍主力與賀若弼、韓擒虎八千部隊激戰，由于陳軍不能合力，被擊破。

開皇九年正月二十甲申日（589年2月10日），陳將任忠投降，引韓擒虎攻入建康城，捉住陳叔寶，陳朝亡。

不久，各地陳軍或受陳後主號令投降、或抵抗隋軍而被消滅，只有嶺南地區受冼夫人保境據守。開皇十年（590年）八月，隋派使臣韋洸等人安撫嶺南，冼夫人率眾迎接隋使，嶺南諸州悉為隋地。至此，天下一統。

自西晉永嘉之亂（公元316年）以來，中原和江南地區政權分裂長達273年之久，至此隋文帝再造統一之局，並開創長達167年的隋唐盛世，直至安史之亂。

政治作為

軍政改革

政治方面的支持功不可沒。漢人如鄭譯、蘇威、高熲等名臣有助推動國策。楊堅亦因前朝酷刑甚多，影響民生，故命蘇威等人編纂《開皇律》，修訂刑律，訂立國家刑法，使人民有法可守，又減省刑罰，死刑只設絞、斬二等，以示隋朝對民之寬大。在澄清吏治方面，楊堅得國以來，勵精圖治，兼且天資刻薄，自不容貪污枉法之行為存在。楊堅命柳盛持節巡省河北五十二州，奏免長吏贓污不稱者二百餘人，州縣肅然。吏治之整肅，不僅上裕國庫，下紓民困，隋高祖在位時之隆盛，此亦為要因。

軍事上，隋文帝改變府兵制初設時，兵農分離情況。轉變為和平時期府兵耕地種田，並在折衝將軍領導下進行日常訓練；戰爭發生時，由朝廷另派將領聚集各地府兵出征的「兵農合一」的制度。

地方行政方面，文帝鑑於南北朝政區劃分繁雜隨意，地方行政交錯混亂，支出龐大，楊堅遂於開皇三年(583年)，盡罷諸郡，實行州縣二級制，使國家地方行政漸上軌道。誠如學者錢穆所言：開皇之治的成功，簡化地方行政機構是一個基本因素。據統計隋文帝時期朝廷開支減省三分之二，地方官府之開支減省四分之三，全國於行政之經費，大約是南北朝時期開支三分1而已。故隋國庫之豐積，不無原因。

經濟政策

經濟上鑑於南北分裂達二百七十年之久，民生困苦，國庫空虛，由以中原地區為盛。故自隋開皇九年(589年)，隋軍統一天下後，即以富國為首要目標。故楊堅接納司馬蘇威建議，罷鹽、酒專賣及入市稅，其後多次減稅，減輕人民負擔，促進國家農業生產，穩定經濟發展。隋文帝在位時代之富饒既非重歛於民，究其原因，與全國推行均田制有關。此舉既可增加賦稅，又可穩定經濟發展，且南朝士族亦漸由衰弱至於消逝。均田制能順利推行，對隋前中期的經濟發展收益甚大。輕徭薄賦以解民困。在確保國家賦稅收入之同時，穩定民生。由於魏晉南北朝以來，戶籍不清，稅收不穩。於是于開皇五年(585年)下令實行大索貌閱。並接納尚書左僕射高熲之建議，推行輸籍法，作全國性戶口調查，結果查獲沒有戶籍的百姓達165萬餘口，其中丁壯44.3萬人， 以增加國家稅收，改善經濟，盡掃魏晉南北朝以來隱瞞戶籍之積弊。

廢九品中正制

另外，隋文帝廢除九品中正制，改為五省六曹制，後改稱五省六部制，是為唐代三省六部制之藍圖。中書、門下兩省負責詔令的起草和封駁，尚書省負責政務的管理。尚書省又下設吏、戶、禮、兵、刑、工六部。吏部，掌管全國官吏的任免、考核、升降和調動；戶部，掌管全國的土地、戶籍以及賦稅、財政收支；禮部，掌管祭祀、禮儀和對外交往；兵部，掌管全國武官的選拔，和兵籍、軍械等；刑部，掌管全國的刑律、斷獄；工部，掌管各種工程、工匠、水利、交通等。

科舉制度

楊堅開了科舉制度之先河，他即位後，廢除了以前選官用的九品中正制，選官不問門第。規定各州每年向中央選送三人，參加秀才、明經等科的考試，合格者錄用為官。

科舉制度順應了歷代庶族地主在政治上得到應有的地位的要求，緩和了他們和朝廷的矛盾，使他們忠心擁戴中央，有利於選拔人才，增強政治效率，對封建專制中央集權的鞏固起了積極的作用。

人口增長

人口在隋朝中前期大為增長，隋文帝開皇元年（581年）全國戶口462萬戶，到隋煬帝大業五年（609年）達到8,907,536戶，46,019,956人。其中在開皇九年（589年）南下平陳增50.0萬，此時的全國戶口700多萬，平均年增長226,708戶。

晚年傾軋

隋文帝統治殘暴及濫殺大臣、企圖獨裁天下，他慢慢被大臣疏遠。文帝殘暴專制，苛刻刑法，百姓惶恐。讓「開皇盛世」大為失色。具體來說，功臣虞慶則、史萬歲等人先後被殺，刑罰也逐漸變得嚴苛無情，不複隋朝初建時的依法行事。

他也對幾個兒子進行打壓，如將三子楊俊軟禁，將四子楊秀貶為庶人。文帝未有鞏固太子的地位，並廢長立幼，立楊廣而廢楊勇，而之後建立唐朝的唐高祖李淵也同樣犯下相同的錯誤，故之後修隋唐史者認為是隋朝敗亡的重大原因。

文帝晚年生活亦變得奢侈，好大喜功，沉迷玩樂，這些壞習慣同樣影響了太子楊廣，結果文帝在位年間的積蓄，全部為楊廣所揮霍。

廢立太子

長子楊勇為人忠厚善良，但生活奢華，因而受楊堅厭惡，常告誡太子楊勇說：「自古帝王未有好奢侈而能長久者。汝為儲後，當以儉約為先，乃能奉承宗廟。」次子楊廣（即隋煬帝）為人文採極高負有抱負，但善於作偽，在楊堅面前裝得很樸素，所以受到楊堅喜愛而代其兄為太子。

604年8月13日，楊堅病逝于仁壽宮大寶殿（一說被太子楊廣所謀殺），享壽63歲，葬于泰陵（位于今陝西省楊凌示範區五泉鎮雙廟坡村，為皇帝楊堅與皇后獨孤氏的合葬墓）。

歷史評價

• 齊王宇文憲曾對周武帝宇文邕評價楊堅：「普六茹堅相貌非常，人頗狡詐，臣每見之不覺自失，請早除之。」

• 隋朝作家李德林在《天命論》中描述隋文帝說：「帝體貌多奇，其面有日月河海，赤龍自通，天角洪大，雙上權骨，彎回抱目，口如四字，聲若釧鼓，手內有王文，乃受九錫。昊天成命，于是乎在。顧盼閒雅，望之如神，氣調精靈，括囊宇宙，威范也可敬，慈愛也可親。」

• 《隋書·帝紀二》評：「雖未能臻于至治，亦足稱近代之良主。然天性沉猜，素無學術，好為小數，不達大體，故忠臣義士莫得盡心竭辭。其草創元勛及有功諸將，誅夷罪退，罕有存者。」又說他「唯婦言是用」、「喜怒不常，過于殺戮」。

• 初唐李延壽《北史》中讚美隋文帝外相：「皇考美鬚髯，身長七尺八寸，狀貌瑰偉，武藝絕倫，識量深重，有將率之略。」

• 《北史》評隋文帝君臣失和、晚年聽信讒言與廢嫡長子，種下隋朝禍根：「而素無術業，不能盡下，無寬仁之度，有刻薄之資，暨乎暮年，此風愈扇。又雅好瑞符，暗於大道。建彼維城，權侔京室，皆同帝制，靡所適從。聽妒婦之言，惑邪臣之說，溺寵廢嫡，託付失所。滅父子之道，開昆弟之隙，縱其尋斧，翦伐本根。墳土未乾，子孫繼踵為戮，松檟纔列，天下已非隋有。惜哉！跡其衰怠之源，稽其亂亡之兆，起自文皇，成於煬帝，所由來遠矣，非一朝一夕，其不祀忽諸，未為不幸也。」

• 北宋司馬光《資治通鑑》評隋文帝一生的功與過：「高祖性嚴重，令行禁止，勤於政事。每旦聽朝，日昃忘倦。雖嗇於財，至於賞賜有功，即無所愛；將士戰沒，必加優賞，仍遣使者勞問其家。愛養百姓，勸課農桑，輕徭薄賦。其自奉養，務為儉素，乘輿御物，故弊者隨令補用；自非享宴，所食不過一肉；後宮皆服浣濯之衣。天下化之，開皇、仁壽之間，丈夫率衣絹布，不服綾綺，裝帶不過銅鐵骨角，無金玉之飾。故衣食滋殖，倉庫盈溢。受禪之初，民戶不滿四百萬，末年，逾八百九十萬，獨冀州已一百萬戶。然猜忌苛察，信受讒言，功臣故舊，無始終保全者；乃至子弟，皆如仇敵，此其所短也。」

• 明朝官修皇帝實錄《明太祖實錄》記載，明太祖朱元璋在洪武七年八月初一日（1374年9月7日），親自前往南京歷代帝王廟祭祀三皇、五帝、夏禹王、商湯王、周武王、漢高祖、漢光武帝、隋文帝、唐太宗、宋太祖、元世祖一共十七位帝王，其中對隋文帝楊堅的祝文是：「惟隋高祖皇帝勤政不怠，賞功弗吝，節用安民，時稱平治。有君天下之德而安萬世之功者也。元璋以菲德荷天佑人助，君臨天下，繼承中國帝王正統，伏念列聖去世已遠，神靈在天，萬古長存，崇報之禮，多未舉行，故于祭祀有闕。是用肇新廟宇于京師，列序聖像及歷代開基帝王，每歲祀以春、秋仲月，永為常典。今禮奠之初，謹奉牲醴、庶品致祭，伏惟神鑒。尚享！」

家庭

父母

• 楊忠，追尊隋武元帝

• 呂苦桃，追尊元明皇后

兄弟姐妹

• 蔡景王楊整

• 滕穆王楊瓚

• 道宣王楊嵩

• 衛昭王楊爽

• 安成公主

• 昌樂公主

• 楊氏，嫁李禮成

后妃

• 文獻皇后獨孤伽羅

• 宣華夫人陳氏，陳宣帝第十四女寧遠公主

• 容華夫人蔡氏

• 弘政夫人陳氏，陳宣帝第二十四女臨川公主

• 宮人尉遲氏，尉遲迥孫女，被獨孤皇后所殺

子女

• 長子房陵王楊勇，廢太子

• 次子煬皇帝楊廣

• 三子秦孝王楊俊

• 四子蜀王楊秀

• 五子漢王楊諒

• 長女樂平公主楊麗華（561年－609年），北周宣帝天元大皇后

• 五女蘭陵公主楊阿五

• 某女襄國公主，下嫁李長雅

• 某女廣平公主，下嫁宇文靜禮

學術考證

根據《周書》《隋書》記載，楊堅家族出身于弘農楊氏。《隋書》與《北史》記載楊堅家族先祖楊鉉為楊震八世孫，但《新唐書》〈宰相世系表〉中記載楊震至楊鉉為19代，清朝沈炳震於〈唐書宰相世系表訂偽〉曾對楊堅家族系譜提出質疑。

中華民國學者陳寅恪不認同楊堅家族出身于武川，根據楊堅之母呂苦桃出身山東寒族，以當時世族通婚慣例來看，其父楊忠家族可能出身于寒門山東楊氏。據中華人民共和國學者唐長孺考證，家譜可考的弘農楊氏後代，如楊駿、楊珧，其家族在晉朝時已消散。北魏時宣稱出身弘農楊氏的，如楊播等人，家族傳承皆可疑，但也可能是遠支，難以確認。

王桐齡認為楊堅家族出身華夷雜處的武川鎮，又與獨孤氏、宇文氏等有聯姻關係，且多有違背儒家倫理的行為，似與胡風暗合。推論楊堅家族可能有鮮卑血統，或是純粹的鮮卑人，偽託為弘農楊氏出身。

多位學者，如竹田龍兒、布目潮渢，認為楊堅家族並非出身漢族，台灣學者呂春盛認為楊堅家族的籍貫與族屬雖難以考究，但出身弘農楊氏的說法應不足採信，其家族也可能出身山東漢人寒門，但史籍記載自楊元壽以來五代居於武川，其家族具有相當胡族文化色彩則無有疑慮。森安孝夫引用學者推論，以楊堅之父楊忠身高達2米，外貌輪廓分明，推論他可能有高加索人種血統。

認為楊堅家族確為弘農楊氏且為漢族的學者，包括中華人民共和國學者陶新華、樊廣平、蒙曼等。學者高明士與楊志玖認為楊堅能迅速奪權建立隋朝，與其家族背景和漢人出身有很大關係。

影視作品

• 1987年香港無線電視劇《大運河》由鮑方飾演。

• 1996年電視劇《隋唐演義》由張運濟飾演。

• 2010年電視劇《淚痕劍》由張晉飾演。

• 2013年電視劇《蘭陵王》由韓棟飾演。

• 2018年電視劇《獨孤天下》由張丹峰飾演

• 2019年電視劇《獨孤皇后》由陳曉飾演

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