History

Establishment

The Li family belonged to the northwest military aristocracy prevalent during the Sui dynasty and claimed to be paternally descended from the Taoist founder, Lao Tzu (whose personal name was Li Dan or Li Er), the Han dynasty General Li Guang and Western Liang ruler Li Gao. This family was known as the Longxi Li lineage (; c=|s=|t=陇西李氏|labels=no), which includes the Tang poet Li Bai. The Tang Emperors also had Xianbei maternal ancestry, from Emperor Gaozu of Tang's Xianbei mother, Duchess Dugu.

Li Yuan was Duke of Tang and governor of Taiyuan, modern Shanxi, during the Sui dynasty's collapse, which was caused in part by the Sui failure to conquer the northern part of the Korean peninsula during the Goguryeo–Sui War. He had prestige and military experience, and was a first cousin of Emperor Yang of Sui (their mothers were sisters). Li Yuan rose in rebellion in 617, along with his son and his equally militant daughter Princess Pingyang (d. 623), who raised and commanded her own troops. In winter 617, Li Yuan occupied Chang'an, relegated Emperor Yang to the position of Taishang Huang or retired emperor, and acted as regent to the puppet child-emperor, Yang You. On the news of Emperor Yang's murder by General Yuwen Huaji on June 18, 618, Li Yuan declared himself the emperor of a new dynasty, the Tang.

Li Yuan, known as Emperor Gaozu of Tang, ruled until 626, when he was forcefully deposed by his son Li Shimin, the Prince of Qin. Li Shimin had commanded troops since the age of 18 years old, had prowess with bow and arrow, sword and lance and was known for his effective cavalry charges. Fighting a numerically superior army, he defeated Dou Jiande (573–621) at Luoyang in the Battle of Hulao on May 28, 621. In a violent elimination of royal family due to fear of assassination, Li Shimin ambushed and killed two of his brothers, Li Yuanji (b. 603) and Crown prince Li Jiancheng (b. 589), in the Xuanwu Gate Incident on July 2, 626. Shortly thereafter, his father abdicated in his favor and Li Shimin ascended the throne. He is conventionally known by his temple name Taizong.

Although killing two brothers and deposing his father contradicted the Confucian value of filial piety, Taizong showed himself to be a capable leader who listened to the advice of the wisest members of his council. In 628, Emperor Taizong held a Buddhist memorial service for the casualties of war, and in 629 he had Buddhist monasteries erected at the sites of major battles so that monks could pray for the fallen on both sides of the fight.

Expansion into Central Asia

During the Tang campaign against the Eastern Turks, the Eastern Turkic Khaganate was destroyed after the capture of its ruler, Illig Qaghan by the famed Tang military officer Li Jing (571–649); who later became a Chancellor of the Tang dynasty. With this victory, the Turks accepted Taizong as their khagan, a title rendered as Tian Kehan in addition to his rule as emperor of China under the traditional title "Son of Heaven". Taizong was succeeded by his son Li Zhi (as Emperor Gaozong) in 649 CE.

The Tang Dynasty further led the Tang campaigns against the Western Turks. Early military conflicts were a result of the Tang interventions in the rivalry between the Western and Eastern Turks in order to weaken both. Under Emperor Taizong, campaigns were dispatched in the Western Regions against Gaochang in 640, Karasahr in 644 and 648, and Kucha in 648. The wars against the Western Turks continued under Emperor Gaozong, and the Western Turkic Khaganate was finally annexed after General Su Dingfang's defeat of Qaghan Ashina Helu in 657 CE.

Wu Zetians usurpation

Although she entered Emperor Gaozong's court as the lowly consort Wu Wei Liang, Wu Zetian rose to the highest seat of power in 690, establishing the short-lived Wu Zhou. Empress Wu's rise to power was achieved through cruel and calculating tactics: a popular conspiracy theory stated that she killed her own baby girl and blamed it on Gaozong's empress so that the empress would be demoted. Emperor Gaozong suffered a stroke in 655, and Wu began to make many of his court decisions for him, discussing affairs of state with his councilors, who took orders from her while she sat behind a screen. When Empress Wu's eldest son, the crown prince, began to assert his authority and advocate policies opposed by Empress Wu, he suddenly died in 675. Many suspected he was poisoned by Empress Wu. Although the next heir apparent kept a lower profile, in 680 he was accused by Wu of plotting a rebellion and was banished. (He was later obliged to commit suicide.)

In 683, Emperor Gaozong died. He was succeeded by Emperor Zhongzong, his eldest surviving son by Wu. Zhongzong tried to appoint his wife's father as chancellor: after only six weeks on the throne, he was deposed by Empress Wu in favor of his younger brother, Emperor Ruizong. This provoked a group of Tang princes to rebel in 684. Wu's armies suppressed them within two months. She proclaimed the Tianshou era of Wu Zhou on , and three days later demoted Emperor Ruizong to crown prince. He was also forced to give up his father's surname Li in favor of the Empress Wu. She then ruled as China's only empress regnant.

A palace coup on , forced Empress Wu to yield her position on February 22. The next day, her son Zhongzong was restored to power; the Tang was formally restored on March 3. She died soon after. To legitimize her rule, she circulated a document known as the Great Cloud Sutra, which predicted that a reincarnation of the Maitreya Buddha would be a female monarch who would dispel illness, worry, and disaster from the world. She even introduced numerous revised written characters to the written language, which reverted to the originals after her death. Arguably the most important part of her legacy was diminishing the hegemony of the Northwestern aristocracy, allowing people from other clans and regions of China to become more represented in Chinese politics and government.

Emperor Xuanzongs reign

There were many prominent women at court during and after Wu's reign, including Shangguan Wan'er (664–710), a poet, writer, and trusted official in charge of Wu's private office. In 706 the wife of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang, Empress Wei (d. 710), persuaded her husband to staff government offices with his sister and her daughters, and in 709 requested that he grant women the right to bequeath hereditary privileges to their sons (which before was a male right only). Empress Wei eventually poisoned Zhongzong, whereupon she placed his fifteen-year-old son upon the throne in 710. Two weeks later, Li Longji (the later Emperor Xuanzong) entered the palace with a few followers and slew Empress Wei and her faction. He then installed his father Emperor Ruizong (r. 710–712) on the throne. Just as Emperor Zhongzong was dominated by Empress Wei, so too was Ruizong dominated by Princess Taiping. This was finally ended when Princess Taiping's coup failed in 712 (she later hanged herself in 713) and Emperor Ruizong abdicated to Emperor Xuanzong.

During the 44-year reign of Emperor Xuanzong, the Tang dynasty reached its height, a golden age with low economic inflation and a toned down lifestyle for the imperial court. Seen as a progressive and benevolent ruler, Xuanzong even abolished the death penalty in the year 747; all executions had to be approved beforehand by the emperor himself (these were relatively few, considering that there were only 24 executions in the year 730). Xuanzong bowed to the consensus of his ministers on policy decisions and made efforts to staff government ministries fairly with different political factions. His staunch Confucian chancellor Zhang Jiuling (673–740) worked to reduce deflation and increase the money supply by upholding the use of private coinage, while his aristocratic and technocratic successor Li Linfu (d. 753) favored government monopoly over the issuance of coinage. After 737, most of Xuanzong's confidence rested in his long-standing chancellor Li Linfu, who championed a more aggressive foreign policy employing non-Chinese generals. This policy ultimately created the conditions for a massive rebellion against Xuanzong.

An Lushan Rebellion and catastrophe

The Tang Empire was at its height of power up until the middle of the 8th century, when the An Lushan Rebellion (December 16, 755 – February 17, 763) destroyed the prosperity of the empire. An Lushan was a half-Sogdian, half-Turk Tang commander since 744, had experience fighting the Khitans of Manchuria with a victory in 744, yet most of his campaigns against the Khitans were unsuccessful. He was given great responsibility in Hebei, which allowed him to rebel with an army of more than 100,000 troops. After capturing Luoyang, he named himself emperor of a new, but short-lived, Yan state. Despite early victories scored by Tang General Guo Ziyi (697–781), the newly recruited troops of the army at the capital were no match for An Lushan's frontier veterans, so the court fled Chang'an. While the heir apparent raised troops in Shanxi and Xuanzong fled to Sichuan province, they called upon the help of the Uyghur Khaganate in 756. The Uyghur khan Moyanchur was greatly excited at this prospect, and married his own daughter to the Chinese diplomatic envoy once he arrived, receiving in turn a Chinese princess as his bride. The Uyghurs helped recapture the Tang capital from the rebels, but they refused to leave until the Tang paid them an enormous sum of tribute in silk. Even Abbasid Arabs assisted the Tang in putting down An Lushan's rebellion. The Tibetans took hold of the opportunity and raided many areas under Chinese control, and even after the Tibetan Empire had fallen apart in 842 (and the Uyghurs soon after) the Tang were in no position to reconquer Central Asia after 763. So significant was this loss that half a century later jinshi examination candidates were required to write an essay on the causes of the Tang's decline. Although An Lushan was killed by one of his eunuchs in 757, this time of troubles and widespread insurrection continued until rebel Shi Siming was killed by his own son in 763.

One of the legacies that the Tang government left since 710 was the gradual rise of regional military governors, the jiedushi, who slowly came to challenge the power of the central government. After the An Lushan Rebellion, the autonomous power and authority accumulated by the jiedushi in Hebei went beyond the central government's control. After a series of rebellions between 781 and 784 in today's Hebei, Shandong, Hubei and Henan provinces, the government had to officially acknowledge the jiedushi's hereditary ruling without accreditation. The Tang government relied on these governors and their armies for protection and to suppress locals that would take up arms against the government. In return, the central government would acknowledge the rights of these governors to maintain their army, collect taxes and even to pass on their title to heirs. As time passed, these military governors slowly phased out the prominence of civil officials drafted by exams, and became more autonomous from central authority. The rule of these powerful military governors lasted until 960, when a new civil order under the Song dynasty was established. Also, the abandonment of the equal-field system meant that people could buy and sell land freely. Many poor fell into debt because of this, forced to sell their land to the wealthy, which led to the exponential growth of large estates. With the breakdown of the land allocation system after 755, the central Chinese state barely interfered in agricultural management and acted merely as tax collector for roughly a millennium, save a few instances such as the Song's failed land nationalization during the 13th-century war with the Mongols.

With the central government collapsing in authority over the various regions of the empire, it was recorded in 845 that bandits and river pirates in parties of 100 or more began plundering settlements along the Yangtze River with little resistance. In 858, massive floods along the Grand Canal inundated vast tracts of land and terrain of the North China Plain, which drowned tens of thousands of people in the process.

The Chinese belief in the Mandate of Heaven granted to the ailing Tang was also challenged when natural calamities occurred, forcing many to believe that the Tang had lost their right to rule. Furthermore, in 873 a disastrous harvest shook the foundations of the empire; in some areas only half of all agricultural produce was gathered, and tens of thousands faced famine and starvation. In the earlier period of the Tang, the central government was able to meet crises in the harvest, as it was recorded from 714 to 719 that the Tang government responded effectively to natural disasters by extending the price-regulation granary system throughout the country. The central government was able then to build a large surplus stock of foods to ward off the rising danger of famine and increased agricultural productivity through land reclamation. In the 9th century, however, the Tang government was nearly helpless in dealing with any calamity.

Rebuilding and recovery

Although these natural calamities and rebellions stained the reputation and hampered the effectiveness of the central government, the early 9th century is nonetheless viewed as a period of recovery for the Tang dynasty. The government's withdrawal from its role in managing the economy had the unintended effect of stimulating trade, as more markets with less bureaucratic restrictions were opened up. By 780, the old grain tax and labor service of the 7th century was replaced by a semiannual tax paid in cash, signifying the shift to a money economy boosted by the merchant class. Cities in the Jiangnan region to the south, such as Yangzhou, Suzhou, and Hangzhou prospered the most economically during the late Tang period. The government monopoly on the production of salt, weakened after the An Lushan Rebellion, was placed under the Salt Commission, which became one of the most powerful state agencies, run by capable ministers chosen as specialists. The commission began the practice of selling merchants the rights to buy monopoly salt, which they would then transport and sell in local markets. In 799 salt accounted for over half of the government's revenues. S.A.M. Adshead writes that this salt tax represents "the first time that an indirect tax, rather than tribute, levies on land or people, or profit from state enterprises such as mines, had been the primary resource of a major state." Even after the power of the central government was in decline after the mid 8th century, it was still able to function and give out imperial orders on a massive scale. The Tangshu (Old Book of Tang) compiled in the year 945 recorded that in 828 the Tang government issued a decree that standardized irrigational square-pallet chain pumps in the country:

In the second year of the Taihe reign period 828, in the second month...a standard model of the chain pump was issued from the palace, and the people of Jingzhao Fu (d footnote: the capital) were ordered by the emperor to make a considerable number of machines, for distribution to the people along the Zheng Bai Canal, for irrigation purposes.|

The last great ambitious ruler of the Tang dynasty was Emperor Xianzong (r. 805–820), whose reign was aided by the fiscal reforms of the 780s, including a government monopoly on the salt industry. He also had an effective well trained imperial army stationed at the capital led by his court eunuchs; this was the Army of Divine Strategy, numbering 240,000 in strength as recorded in 798. Between the years 806 and 819, Emperor Xianzong conducted seven major military campaigns to quell the rebellious provinces that had claimed autonomy from central authority, managing to subdue all but two of them. Under his reign there was a brief end to the hereditary jiedushi, as Xianzong appointed his own military officers and staffed the regional bureaucracies once again with civil officials. However, Xianzong's successors proved less capable and more interested in the leisure of hunting, feasting, and playing outdoor sports, allowing eunuchs to amass more power as drafted scholar-officials caused strife in the bureaucracy with factional parties. The eunuchs' power became unchallenged after Emperor Wenzong's (r. 826–840) failed plot to have them overthrown; instead the allies of Emperor Wenzong were publicly executed in the West Market of Chang'an, by the eunuchs' command.

However, the Tang did manage to restore at least indirect control over former Tang territories as far west as the Hexi Corridor and Dunhuang in Gansu. In 848 the ethnic Han Chinese general Zhang Yichao (799–872) managed to wrestle control of the region from the Tibetan Empire during its civil war. Shortly afterwards Emperor Xuānzong of Tang (r. 846–859) acknowledged Zhang as the protector (防御使, Fangyushi) of Sha Prefecture and jiedushi military governor of the new Guiyi Circuit.

End of the dynasty

In addition to natural calamities and jiedushi amassing autonomous control, the Huang Chao Rebellion (874–884) resulted in the sacking of both Chang'an and Luoyang, and took an entire decade to suppress. Although the rebellion was defeated by the Tang, it never recovered from that crucial blow, weakening it for future military powers to replace it. There were also large groups of bandits in the size of small armies that ravaged the countryside in the last years of the Tang. They smuggled illicit salt, ambushed merchants and convoys, and even besieged several walled cities. Amid the sacking of cities and murderous factional strife among eunuchs and officials, the top tier of aristocratic families, which had amassed a large fraction of the landed wealth and official positions, were wiped out.

Zhu Wen, originally a salt smuggler who had served under the rebel Huang Chao, surrendered to Tang forces. By helping to defeat Huang, he was renamed Zhu Quanzhong and granted a series of rapid military promotions to military governor of Xuanwu Circuit. Zhu later conquered many circuits and became the most powerful warlord. In 903 he controlled the imperial court and forced Emperor Zhaozong of Tang to move the capital to Luoyang, preparing to take the throne himself. In 904 Zhu assassinated Emperor Zhaozong to replace him with the emperor's young son Emperor Ai of Tang. In 905 Zhu executed 9 brothers of Emperor Ai as well as many officials and Empress Dowager He. In 907 the Tang dynasty was ended when Zhu deposed Ai and took the throne for himself (known posthumously as Emperor Taizu of Later Liang). He established the Later Liang, which inaugurated the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. A year later Zhu had the deposed Emperor Ai poisoned to death.

Administration and politics

Initial reforms

Taizong set out to solve internal problems within the government which had constantly plagued past dynasties. Building upon the Sui legal code, he issued a new legal code that subsequent Chinese dynasties would model theirs upon, as well as neighboring polities in Vietnam, Korea, and Japan. The earliest law code to survive was the one established in the year 653, which was divided into 500 articles specifying different crimes and penalties ranging from ten blows with a light stick, one hundred blows with a heavy rod, exile, penal servitude, or execution.

The legal code distinguished different levels of severity in meted punishments when different members of the social and political hierarchy committed the same crime. For example, the severity of punishment was different when a servant or nephew killed a master or an uncle than when a master or uncle killed a servant or nephew.

The Tang Code was largely retained by later codes such as the early Ming dynasty (1368–1644) code of 1397, yet there were several revisions in later times, such as improved property rights for women during the Song dynasty (960–1279).

The Tang had three departments (省 shěng), which were obliged to draft, review, and implement policies respectively. There were also six ministries (部 bù) under the administrations that implemented policy, each of which was assigned different tasks. These Three Departments and Six Ministries included the personnel administration, finance, rites, military, justice, and public works—an administrative model which would last until the fall of the Qing dynasty (1644–1912).

Although the founders of the Tang related to the glory of the earlier Han dynasty (3rd century BC–3rd century AD), the basis for much of their administrative organization was very similar to the previous Northern and Southern dynasties. The Northern Zhou (6th century) fubing system of divisional militia was continued by the Tang, along with farmer-soldiers serving in rotation from the capital or frontier in order to receive appropriated farmland. The equal-field system of the Northern Wei (4th–6th centuries) was also kept, although there were a few modifications.

Although the central and local governments kept an enormous number of records about land property in order to assess taxes, it became common practice in the Tang for literate and affluent people to create their own private documents and signed contracts. These had their own signature and that of a witness and scribe in order to prove in court (if necessary) that their claim to property was legitimate. The prototype of this actually existed since the ancient Han dynasty, while contractual language became even more common and embedded into Chinese literary culture in later dynasties.

The center of the political power of the Tang was the capital city of Chang'an (modern Xi'an), where the emperor maintained his large palace quarters and entertained political emissaries with music, sports, acrobatic stunts, poetry, paintings, and dramatic theater performances. The capital was also filled with incredible amounts of riches and resources to spare. When the Chinese prefectural government officials traveled to the capital in the year 643 to give the annual report of the affairs in their districts, Emperor Taizong discovered that many had no proper quarters to rest in and were renting rooms with merchants. Therefore, Emperor Taizong ordered the government agencies in charge of municipal construction to build every visiting official his own private mansion in the capital.

Imperial examinations

Students of Confucian studies were candidates for the imperial examinations, which qualified their graduates for appointment to the local, provincial, and central government bureaucracies. Two types of exams given, mingjing (明经; "illuminating the classics") and jinshi (进士; "presented scholar"). The mingjing was based upon the Confucian classics and tested the student's knowledge of a broad variety of texts. The jinshi tested a student's literary abilities in writing essays in response to questions on governance and politics, as well as in composing poetry. Candidates were also judged on proper deportment, appearance, speech, and calligraphy, all subjective criteria that favored the wealthy over those of more modest means who were unable to pay tutors of rhetoric and writing. Although a disproportionate number of civil officials came from aristocratic families, wealth and noble status were not prerequisites, and the exams were open to all male subjects whose fathers were not of the artisan or merchant classes. To promote widespread Confucian education, the Tang government established state-run schools and issued standard versions of the Five Classics with commentaries.

Open competition was designed to draw the best talent into government. But perhaps an even greater consideration for the Tang rulers was to avoid imperial dependence on powerful aristocratic families and warlords by recruiting a body of career officials having no family or local power base. The Tang law code ensured equal division of inherited property amongst legitimate heirs, encouraging social mobility by preventing powerful families from becoming landed nobility through primogeniture. The competition system proved successful, as scholar-officials acquired status in their local communities while developing an esprit de corps that connected them to the imperial court. From Tang times until the end of the Qing dynasty in 1912, scholar-officials served as intermediaries between the people and the government.

Yet the potential of a widespread examination system was not fully realized until the succeeding Song dynasty, when the merit-driven scholar official largely shed his aristocratic habits and defined his social status through the examination system.

Religion and politics

From the outset, religion played a role in Tang politics. In his bid for power, Li Yuan had attracted a following by claiming descent from the Taoism sage Lao Tzu ( 6th century BC). People bidding for office would request the prayers of Buddhist monks, with successful aspirants making donations in return. Before the persecution of Buddhism in the 9th century, Buddhism and Taoism were both accepted.

Religion was central in the reign of Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–756). The Emperor invited Taoist and Buddhist monks and clerics to his court, exalted the Taoist ancient Lao Tzu with grand titles, wrote commentary on the Lao Tzu scriptures, and set up a school to prepare candidates for Taoist examinations. In 726 he called upon the Indian monk Vajrabodhi (671–741) to perform Tantric rites to avert a drought. In 742 he personally held the incense burner while Amoghavajra (705–774, patriarch of the Shingon school) recited "mystical incantations to secure the victory of Tang forces."

Emperor Xuanzong closely regulated religious finances. Near the beginning of his reign in 713, he liquidated the Inexhaustible Treasury of a prominent Buddhist monastery in Chang'an which had collected vast riches as multitudes of anonymous repentants left money, silk, and treasure at its doors. Although the monastery used its funds generously, the Emperor condemned it for fraudulent banking practices, and distributed its wealth to other Buddhist and Taoist monasteries, and to repair local statues, halls, and bridges. In 714, he forbade Chang'an shops from selling copied Buddhist sutras, giving a monopoly of this trade to the Buddhist clergy.

Taxes and the census

The Tang dynasty government attempted to create an accurate census of the empire's population, mostly for effective taxation and military conscription. The early Tang government established modest grain and cloth taxes on each household, persuading households to register and provide the government with accurate demographic information. In the official census of 609, the population was tallied at 9 million households, about 50 million people, and this number did not increase in the census of 742. Patricia Ebrey writes that nonwithstanding census undercounting, China's population had not grown significantly since the earlier Han Dynasty, which recorded 58 million people in the year 2. S.A.M. Adshead disagrees, estimating about 75 million people by 750.

In the Tang census of 754, there were 1,859 cities, 321 prefectures, and 1,538 counties throughout the empire. Although there were many large and prominent cities, the rural and agrarian areas comprised some 80 to 90% of the population. There was also a dramatic migration from northern to southern China, as the North held 75% of the overall population at the dynasty's inception, which by its end was reduced to 50%.

Chinese population would not dramatically increase until the Song dynasty, when it doubled to 100 million because of extensive rice cultivation in central and southern China, coupled with higher yields of grain sold in a growing market.

Military and foreign policy

Protectorates and tributaries

The 7th and first half of the 8th century are generally considered to be the era in which the Tang reached the zenith of its power. In this period, Tang control extended further west than any previous dynasty, stretching from north Vietnam in the south, to a point north of Kashmir bordering Persia in the west, to northern Korea in the north-east.

Some of the kingdoms paying tribute to the Tang dynasty included Kashmir, Nepal, Khotan, Kucha, Kashgar, Silla, Champa, and kingdoms located in Amu Darya and Syr Darya valley. Turkic nomads addressed the Emperor of Tang China as Tian Kehan. After the widespread Göktürk revolt of Shabolüe Khan (d. 658) was put down at Issyk Kul in 657 by Su Dingfang (591–667), Emperor Gaozong established several protectorates governed by a Protectorate General or Grand Protectorate General, which extended the Chinese sphere of influence as far as Herat in Western Afghanistan. Protectorate Generals were given a great deal of autonomy to handle local crises without waiting for central admission. After Xuanzong's reign, military governors (jiedushi) were given enormous power, including the ability to maintain their own armies, collect taxes, and pass their titles on hereditarily. This is commonly recognized as the beginning of the fall of Tang's central government.

Soldiers and conscription

By the year 737, Emperor Xuanzong discarded the policy of conscripting soldiers that were replaced every three years, replacing them with long-service soldiers who were more battle-hardened and efficient. It was more economically feasible as well, since training new recruits and sending them out to the frontier every three years drained the treasury. By the late 7th century, the fubing troops began abandoning military service and the homes provided to them in the equal-field system. The supposed standard of 100 mu of land allotted to each family was in fact decreasing in size in places where population expanded and the wealthy bought up most of the land. Hard-pressed peasants and vagrants were then induced into military service with benefits of exemption from both taxation and corvée labor service, as well as provisions for farmland and dwellings for dependents who accompanied soldiers on the frontier. By the year 742 the total number of enlisted troops in the Tang armies had risen to about 500,000 men.

Eastern regions

In East Asia, Tang Chinese military campaigns were less successful elsewhere than in previous imperial Chinese dynasties. Like the emperors of the Sui dynasty before him, Taizong established a military campaign in 644 against the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo in the Goguryeo–Tang War; however, this led to its withdrawal in the first campaign because they failed to overcome the successful defense led by General Yeon Gaesomun. Allying with the Korean Silla Kingdom, the Chinese fought against Baekje and their Yamato Japanese allies in the Battle of Baekgang in August 663, a decisive Tang–Silla victory. The Tang dynasty navy had several different ship types at its disposal to engage in naval warfare, these ships described by Li Quan in his Taipai Yinjing (Canon of the White and Gloomy Planet of War) of 759. The Battle of Baekgang was actually a restoration movement by remnant forces of Baekje, since their kingdom was toppled in 660 by a joint Tang–Silla invasion, led by Chinese general Su Dingfang and Korean general Kim Yushin (595–673). In another joint invasion with Silla, the Tang army severely weakened the Goguryeo Kingdom in the north by taking out its outer forts in the year 645. With joint attacks by Silla and Tang armies under commander Li Shiji (594–669), the Kingdom of Goguryeo was destroyed by 668.

Although they were formerly enemies, the Tang accepted officials and generals of Goguryeo into their administration and military, such as the brothers Yeon Namsaeng (634–679) and Yeon Namsan (639–701). From 668 to 676, the Tang Empire would control northern Korea. However, in 671 Silla broke the alliance and began the Silla–Tang War to expel the Tang forces. At the same time the Tang faced threats on its western border when a large Chinese army was defeated by the Tibetans on the Dafei River in 670. By 676, the Tang army tactically withdrew from Korea in favor of its new ally, Unified Silla. Following a revolt of the Eastern Turks in 679, the Tang abandoned its Korean campaigns.

Although the Tang had fought the Japanese, they still held cordial relations with Japan. There were numerous Imperial embassies to China from Japan, diplomatic missions that were not halted until 894 by Emperor Uda (r. 887–897), upon persuasion by Sugawara no Michizane (845–903). The Japanese Emperor Tenmu (r. 672–686) even established his conscripted army on that of the Chinese model, his state ceremonies on the Chinese model, and constructed his palace at Fujiwara on the Chinese model of architecture.

Many Chinese Buddhist monks came to Japan to help further the spread of Buddhism as well. Two 7th-century monks in particular, Zhi Yu and Zhi You, visited the court of Emperor Tenji (r. 661–672), whereupon they presented a gift of a south-pointing chariot that they had crafted. This 3rd century mechanically driven directional-compass vehicle (employing a differential gear) was again reproduced in several models for Tenji in 666, as recorded in the Nihon Shoki of 720. Japanese monks also visited China; such was the case with Ennin (794–864), who wrote of his travel experiences including travels along China's Grand Canal. The Japanese monk Enchin (814–891) stayed in China from 839 to 847 and again from 853 to 858, landing near Fuzhou, Fujian and setting sail for Japan from Taizhou, Zhejiang during his second trip to China.

Western and Northern regions

The Sui and Tang carried out successful military campaigns against the steppe nomads. Chinese foreign policy to the north and west now had to deal with Turkic nomads, who were becoming the most dominant ethnic group in Central Asia. To handle and avoid any threats posed by the Turks, the Sui government repaired fortifications and received their trade and tribute missions. They sent four royal princesses to form marriage alliances with Turkic clan leaders, in 597, 599, 614, and 617. The Sui stirred trouble and conflict amongst ethnic groups against the Turks. As early as the Sui dynasty, the Turks had become a major militarized force employed by the Chinese. When the Khitans began raiding northeast China in 605, a Chinese general led 20,000 Turks against them, distributing Khitan livestock and women to the Turks as a reward. On two occasions between 635 and 636, Tang royal princesses were married to Turk mercenaries or generals in Chinese service. Throughout the Tang dynasty until the end of 755, there were approximately ten Turkic generals serving under the Tang. While most of the Tang army was made of fubing Chinese conscripts, the majority of the troops led by Turkic generals were of non-Chinese origin, campaigning largely in the western frontier where the presence of fubing troops was low. Some "Turkic" troops were tribalized Han Chinese, a desinicized people.

Civil war in China was almost totally diminished by 626, along with the defeat in 628 of the Ordos Chinese warlord Liang Shidu; after these internal conflicts, the Tang began an offensive against the Turks. In the year 630, Tang armies captured areas of the Ordos Desert, modern-day Inner Mongolia province, and southern Mongolia from the Turks. After this military victory, Emperor Taizong won the title of Great Khan from the various Turks in the region who pledged their allegiance to both him and the Chinese empire (with several thousand Turks traveling into China to live at Chang'an). On June 11, 631, Emperor Taizong also sent envoys to the Xueyantuo bearing gold and silk in order to persuade the release of enslaved Chinese prisoners who were captured during the transition from Sui to Tang from the northern frontier; this embassy succeeded in freeing 80,000 Chinese men and women who were then returned to China.

While the Turks were settled in the Ordos region (former territory of the Xiongnu), the Tang government took on the military policy of dominating the central steppe. Like the earlier Han dynasty, the Tang dynasty (along with Turkic allies) conquered and subdued Central Asia during the 640s and 650s. During Emperor Taizong's reign alone, large campaigns were launched against not only the Göktürks, but also separate campaigns against the Tuyuhun, the oasis city-states, and the Xueyantuo. Under Emperor Gaozong, a campaign led by the general Su Dingfang was launched against the Western Turks ruled by Ashina Helu.

The Tang Empire competed with the Tibetan Empire for control of areas in Inner and Central Asia, which was at times settled with marriage alliances such as the marrying of Princess Wencheng (d. 680) to Songtsän Gampo (d. 649). A Tibetan tradition mentions that Chinese troops captured Lhasa after Songtsän Gampo's death, but no such invasion is mentioned in either Chinese annals or the Tibetan manuscripts of Dunhuang.

There was a long string of conflicts with Tibet over territories in the Tarim Basin between 670 and 692, and in 763 the Tibetans even captured the capital of China, Chang'an, for fifteen days during the An Shi Rebellion. In fact, it was during this rebellion that the Tang withdrew its western garrisons stationed in what is now Gansu and Qinghai, which the Tibetans then occupied along with the territory of what is now Xinjiang. Hostilities between the Tang and Tibet continued until they signed a formal peace treaty in 821. The terms of this treaty, including the fixed borders between the two countries, are recorded in a bilingual inscription on a stone pillar outside the Jokhang temple in Lhasa.

During the Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656), the son of the last ruler of the Sassanid Empire, Prince Peroz and his court moved to Tang China. According to the Old Book of Tang, Peroz was made the head of a Governorate of Persia in what is now Zaranj, Afghanistan. During this conquest of Persia, the Rashidun Caliph Uthman Ibn Affan (r. 644–656) sent an embassy to the Tang court at Chang'an. Arab sources claim Umayyad commander Qutayba ibn Muslim briefly took Kashgar from China and withdrew after an agreement, but modern historians entirely dismiss this claim. The Arab Umayyad Caliphate in 715 desposed Ikhshid, the king the Fergana Valley, and installed a new king Alutar on the throne. The deposed king fled to Kucha (seat of Anxi Protectorate), and sought Chinese intervention. The Chinese sent 10,000 troops under Zhang Xiaosong to Ferghana. He defeated Alutar and the Arab occupation force at Namangan and reinstalled Ikhshid on the throne. The Tang dynasty Chinese defeated the Arab Umayyad invaders at the Battle of Aksu (717). The Arab Umayyad commander Al-Yashkuri and his army fled to Tashkent after they were defeated. The Turgesh then crushed the Arab Umayyads and drove them out. By the 740s, the Arabs under the Abbasid Caliphate in Khorasan had reestablished a presence in the Ferghana basin and in Sogdiana. At the Battle of Talas in 751, Karluk mercenaries under the Chinese defected, helping the Arab armies of the Caliphate to defeat the Tang force under commander Gao Xianzhi. Although the battle itself was not of the greatest significance militarily, this was a pivotal moment in history, as it marks the spread of Chinese papermaking into regions west of China as captured Chinese soldiers shared the technique of papermaking to the Arabs. These techniques ultimately reached Europe by the 12th century through Arab-controlled Spain. Although they had fought at Talas, on June 11, 758, an Abbasid embassy arrived at Chang'an simultaneously with the Uighur Turks bearing gifts for the Tang Emperor. In 788–789 the Chinese concluded a military alliance with the Uighur Turks who twice defeated the Tibetans, in 789 near the town of Gaochang in Dzungaria, and in 791 near Ningxia on the Yellow River.

Joseph Needham writes that a tributary embassy came to the court of Emperor Taizong in 643 from the Patriarch of Antioch. However, Friedrich Hirth and other sinologists such as S.A.M. Adshead have identified Fu lin (拂菻) in the Old and New Book of Tang as the Byzantine Empire, which those histories directly associated with Daqin (i.e. the Roman Empire). The embassy sent in 643 by Boduoli (波多力) was identified as Byzantine ruler Constans II Pogonatos (Kōnstantinos Pogonatos, or "Constantine the Bearded") and further embassies were recorded as being sent into the 8th century. S.A.M. Adshead offers a different transliteration stemming from "patriarch" or "patrician", possibly a reference to one of the acting regents for the young Byzantine monarch. The Old and New Book of Tang also provide a description of the Byzantine capital Constantinople, including how it was besieged by the Da shi (大食, i.e. Umayyad Caliphate) forces of Muawiyah I, who forced them to pay tribute to the Arabs. The 7th-century Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta wrote about the reunification of northern and southern China by the Sui dynasty (dating this to the time of Emperor Maurice); the capital city Khubdan (from Old Turkic Khumdan, i.e. Chang'an); the basic geography of China including its previous political division around the Yangtze River; the name of China's ruler Taisson meaning "Son of God", but possibly derived from the name of the contemporaneous ruler Emperor Taizong.

Economy

Through use of the land trade along the Silk Road and maritime trade by sail at sea, the Tang were able to acquire and gain many new technologies, cultural practices, rare luxury, and contemporary items. From Europe, the Middle East, Central and South Asia, the Tang dynasty were able to acquire new ideas in fashion, new types of ceramics, and improved silver-smithing techniques. The Tang Chinese also gradually adopted the foreign concept of stools and chairs as seating, whereas the Chinese beforehand always sat on mats placed on the floor. People of the Middle East coveted and purchased in bulk Chinese goods such as silks, lacquerwares, and porcelain wares. Songs, dances, and musical instruments from foreign regions became popular in China during the Tang dynasty. These musical instruments included oboes, flutes, and small lacquered drums from Kucha in the Tarim Basin, and percussion instruments from India such as cymbals. At the court there were nine musical ensembles (expanded from seven in the Sui dynasty) that played ecletic Asian music.

There was great interaction with India, a hub for Buddhist knowledge, with famous travelers such as Xuanzang (d. 664) visiting the South Asian state. After a 17-year-long trip, Xuanzang managed to bring back valuable Sanskrit texts to be translated into Chinese. There was also a Turkic–Chinese dictionary available for serious scholars and students, while Turkic folk songs gave inspiration to some Chinese poetry. In the interior of China, trade was facilitated by the Grand Canal and the Tang government's rationalization of the greater canal system that reduced costs of transporting grain and other commodities. The state also managed roughly of postal service routes by horse or boat.

Silk Road

Although the Silk Road from China to Europe and the Western World was initially formulated during the reign of Emperor Wu (141–87 BC) during the Han, it was reopened by the Tang in 639 when Hou Junji ( 643) conquered the West, and remained open for almost four decades. It was closed after the Tibetans captured it in 678, but in 699, during Empress Wu's period, the Silk Road reopened when the Tang reconquered the Four Garrisons of Anxi originally installed in 640, once again connecting China directly to the West for land-based trade.

The Tang captured the vital route through the Gilgit Valley from Tibet in 722, lost it to the Tibetans in 737, and regained it under the command of the Goguryeo-Korean General Gao Xianzhi. When the An Lushan Rebellion ended in 763, the Tang Empire withdrew its troops from its western lands, allowing the Tibetan Empire to largely cut off China's direct access to the Silk Road. An internal rebellion in 848 ousted the Tibetan rulers, and Tang China regained its northwestern prefectures from Tibet in 851. These lands contained crucial grazing areas and pastures for raising horses that the Tang dynasty desperately needed.

Despite the many expatriate European travelers coming into China to live and trade, many travelers, mainly religious monks and missionaries, recorded China's stringent immigrant laws . As the monk Xuanzang and many other monk travelers attested to, there were many Chinese government checkpoints along the Silk Road that examined travel permits into the Tang Empire. Furthermore, banditry was a problem along the checkpoints and oasis towns, as Xuanzang also recorded that his group of travelers were assaulted by bandits on multiple occasions.

The Silk Road also affected Tang dynasty art. Horses became a significant symbol of prosperity and power as well as an instrument of military and diplomatic policy. Horses were also revered as a relative of the dragon.

Seaports and maritime trade

Chinese envoys have been sailing through the Indian Ocean to India since perhaps the 2nd century BC, yet it was during the Tang dynasty that a strong Chinese maritime presence could be found in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea, into Persia, Mesopotamia (sailing up the Euphrates River in modern-day Iraq), Arabia, Egypt in the Middle East and Aksum (Ethiopia), and Somalia in the Horn of Africa.

During the Tang dynasty, thousands of foreign expatriate merchants came and lived in numerous Chinese cities to do business with China, including Persians, Arabs, Hindu Indians, Malays, Bengalis, Sinhalese, Khmers, Chams, Jews and Nestorian Christians of the Near East, among many others. In 748, the Buddhist monk Jian Zhen described Guangzhou as a bustling mercantile business center where many large and impressive foreign ships came to dock. He wrote that "many large ships came from Borneo, Persia, Qunglun (Indonesia/Java)...with...spices, pearls, and jade piled up mountain high", as written in the Yue Jue Shu (Lost Records of the State of Yue). Relations with the Arabs were often strained: When the imperial government was attempting to quell the An Lushan Rebellion, Arab and Persian pirates burned and looted Canton on October 30, 758. The Tang government reacted by shutting the port of Canton down for roughly five decades; thus, foreign vessels docked at Hanoi instead. However, when the port reopened, it continued to thrive. In 851 the Arab merchant Sulaiman al-Tajir observed the manufacturing of Chinese porcelain in Guangzhou and admired its transparent quality. He also provided a description of Guangzhou's landmarks, granaries, local government administration, some of its written records, treatment of travelers, along with the use of ceramics, rice, wine, and tea. Their presence came to an end under the revenge of Chinese rebel Huang Chao in 878, who purportedly slaughtered thousands regardless of ethnicity. Huang's rebellion was eventually suppressed in 884.

Vessels from neighboring East Asian states such as Silla and Balhae of Korea and the Hizen Province of Japan were all involved in the Yellow Sea trade, which Silla dominated. After Silla and Japan reopened renewed hostilities in the late 7th century, most Japanese maritime merchants chose to set sail from Nagasaki towards the mouth of the Huai River, the Yangtze River, and even as far south as the Hangzhou Bay in order to avoid Korean ships in the Yellow Sea. In order to sail back to Japan in 838, the Japanese embassy to China procured nine ships and sixty Korean sailors from the Korean wards of Chuzhou and Lianshui cities along the Huai River. It is also known that Chinese trade ships traveling to Japan set sail from the various ports along the coasts of Zhejiang and Fujian provinces.

The Chinese engaged in large-scale production for overseas export by at least the time of the Tang. This was proven by the discovery of the Belitung shipwreck, a silt-preserved shipwrecked Arabian dhow in the Gaspar Strait near Belitung, which had 63,000 pieces of Tang ceramics, silver, and gold (including a Changsha bowl inscribed with a date: "16th day of the seventh month of the second year of the Baoli reign", or 826, roughly confirmed by radiocarbon dating of star anise at the wreck). Beginning in 785, the Chinese began to call regularly at Sufala on the East African coast in order to cut out Arab middlemen, with various contemporary Chinese sources giving detailed descriptions of trade in Africa. The official and geographer Jia Dan (730–805) wrote of two common sea trade routes in his day: one from the coast of the Bohai Sea towards Korea and another from Guangzhou through Malacca towards the Nicobar Islands, Sri Lanka and India, the eastern and northern shores of the Arabian Sea to the Euphrates River. In 863 the Chinese author Duan Chengshi (d. 863) provided a detailed description of the slave trade, ivory trade, and ambergris trade in a country called Bobali, which historians suggest was Berbera in Somalia. In Fustat (old Cairo), Egypt, the fame of Chinese ceramics there led to an enormous demand for Chinese goods; hence Chinese often traveled there (this continued into later periods such as Fatimid Egypt). From this time period, the Arab merchant Shulama once wrote of his admiration for Chinese seafaring junks, but noted that their draft was too deep for them to enter the Euphrates River, which forced them to ferry passengers and cargo in small boats. Shulama also noted that Chinese ships were often very large, with capacities up to 600–700 passengers.

Culture and society

Art

Both the Sui and Tang Dynasties had turned away from the more feudal culture of the preceding Northern Dynasties, in favor of staunch civil Confucianism. The governmental system was supported by a large class of Confucian intellectuals selected through either civil service examinations or recommendations. In the Tang period, Taoism and Buddhism were commonly practiced ideologies that played a large role in people's daily lives. The Tang Chinese enjoyed feasting, drinking, holidays, sports, and all sorts of entertainment, while Chinese literature blossomed and was more widely accessible with new printing methods.

Changan, the Tang capital

Although Chang'an was the capital of the earlier Han and Jin dynasties, after subsequent destruction in warfare, it was the Sui dynasty model that comprised the Tang era capital. The roughly square dimensions of the city had six miles (10 km) of outer walls running east to west, and more than five miles (8 km) of outer walls running north to south. The royal palace, the Taiji Palace, stood north of the city's central axis. From the large Mingde Gates located mid-center of the main southern wall, a wide city avenue stretched from there all the way north to the central administrative city, behind which was the Chentian Gate of the royal palace, or Imperial City. Intersecting this were fourteen main streets running east to west, while eleven main streets ran north to south. These main intersecting roads formed 108 rectangular wards with walls and four gates each, and each ward filled with multiple city blocks. The city was made famous for this checkerboard pattern of main roads with walled and gated districts, its layout even mentioned in one of Du Fu's poems. During the Heian period, the city of Heian kyō (present-day Kyoto) of Japan like many cities was arranged in the checkerboard street grid pattern of the Tang capital and in accordance with traditional geomancy following the model of Chang'an. Of these 108 wards in Chang'an, two of them (each the size of two regular city wards) were designated as government-supervised markets, and other space reserved for temples, gardens, ponds, etc. Throughout the entire city, there were 111 Buddhist monasteries, 41 Taoist abbeys, 38 family shrines, 2 official temples, 7 churches of foreign religions, 10 city wards with provincial transmission offices, 12 major inns, and 6 graveyards. Some city wards were literally filled with open public playing fields or the backyards of lavish mansions for playing horse polo and cuju (Chinese soccer). In 662, Emperor Gaozong moved the imperial court to the Daming Palace, which became the political center of the empire and served as the royal residence of the Tang emperors for more than 220 years.

The Tang capital was the largest city in the world at its time, the population of the city wards and its suburban countryside reaching two million inhabitants. The Tang capital was very cosmopolitan, with ethnicities of Persia, Central Asia, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, India, and many other places living within. Naturally, with this plethora of different ethnicities living in Chang'an, there were also many different practiced religions, such as Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, and Zoroastrianism, among others. With the open access to China that the Silk Road to the west facilitated, many foreign settlers were able to move east to China, while the city of Chang'an itself had about 25,000 foreigners living within. Exotic green-eyed, blond-haired Tocharian ladies serving wine in agate and amber cups, singing, and dancing at taverns attracted customers. If a foreigner in China pursued a Chinese woman for marriage, he was required to stay in China and was unable to take his bride back to his homeland, as stated in a law passed in 628 to protect women from temporary marriages with foreign envoys. Several laws enforcing segregation of foreigners from Chinese were passed during the Tang dynasty. In 779 the Tang dynasty issued an edict which forced Uighurs in the capital, Chang'an, to wear their ethnic dress, stopped them from marrying Chinese females, and banned them from passing off as Chinese.

Chang'an was the center of the central government, the home of the imperial family, and was filled with splendor and wealth. However, incidentally it was not the economic hub during the Tang dynasty. The city of Yangzhou along the Grand Canal and close to the Yangtze River was the greatest economic center during the Tang era.

Yangzhou was the headquarters for the Tang government's salt monopoly, and was the greatest industrial center of China. It acted as a midpoint in shipping of foreign goods that would be organized and distributed to the major cities of the north. Much like the seaport of Guangzhou in the south, Yangzhou boasted thousands of foreign traders from all across Asia.

There was also the secondary capital city of Luoyang, which was the favored capital of the two by Empress Wu. In the year 691 she had more than 100,000 families (more than 500,000 people) from around the region of Chang'an move to populate Luoyang instead. With a population of about a million, Luoyang became the second largest city in the empire, and with its close proximity to the Luo River it benefited from southern agricultural fertility and trade traffic of the Grand Canal. However, the Tang court eventually demoted its capital status and did not visit Luoyang after the year 743, when Chang'an's problem of acquiring adequate supplies and stores for the year was solved. As early as 736, granaries were built at critical points along the route from Yangzhou to Chang'an, which eliminated shipment delays, spoilage, and pilfering. An artificial lake used as a transshipment pool was dredged east of Chang'an in 743, where curious northerners could finally see the array of boats found in southern China, delivering tax and tribute items to the imperial court.

Literature

The Tang period was a golden age of Chinese literature and art. Over 48,900 poems penned by some 2,200 Tang authors have survived to the present day. Skill in the composition of poetry became a required study for those wishing to pass imperial examinations, while poetry was also heavily competitive; poetry contests amongst guests at banquets and courtiers were common. Poetry styles that were popular in the Tang included gushi and jintishi, with the renowned poet Li Bai (701–762) famous for the former style, and poets like Wang Wei (701–761) and Cui Hao (704–754) famous for their use of the latter. Jintishi poetry, or regulated verse, is in the form of eight-line stanzas or seven characters per line with a fixed pattern of tones that required the second and third couplets to be antithetical (although the antithesis is often lost in translation to other languages). Tang poems remained popular and great emulation of Tang era poetry began in the Song dynasty; in that period, Yan Yu (严羽; active 1194–1245) was the first to confer the poetry of the High Tang (c. 713–766) era with "canonical status within the classical poetic tradition." Yan Yu reserved the position of highest esteem among all Tang poets for Du Fu (712–770), who was not viewed as such in his own era, and was branded by his peers as an anti-traditional rebel.

The Classical Prose Movement was spurred in large part by the writings of Tang authors Liu Zongyuan (773–819) and Han Yu (768–824). This new prose style broke away from the poetry tradition of the piantiwen (, "parallel prose") style begun in the Han dynasty. Although writers of the Classical Prose Movement imitated piantiwen, they criticized it for its often vague content and lack of colloquial language, focusing more on clarity and precision to make their writing more direct. This guwen (archaic prose) style can be traced back to Han Yu, and would become largely associated with orthodox Neo-Confucianism.

Short story fiction and tales were also popular during the Tang, one of the more famous ones being Yingying's Biography by Yuan Zhen (779–831), which was widely circulated in his own time and by the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368) became the basis for plays in Chinese opera. Timothy C. Wong places this story within the wider context of Tang love tales, which often share the plot designs of quick passion, inescapable societal pressure leading to the abandonment of romance, followed by a period of melancholy. Wong states that this scheme lacks the undying vows and total self-commitment to love found in Western romances such as Romeo and Juliet, but that underlying traditional Chinese values of inseparableness of self from one's environment (including human society) served to create the necessary fictional device of romantic tension.

There were large encyclopedias published in the Tang. The Yiwen Leiju encyclopedia was compiled in 624 by the chief editor Ouyang Xun (557–641) as well as Linghu Defen (582–666) and Chen Shuda (d. 635). The encyclopedia Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era was fully compiled in 729 by Gautama Siddha (fl. 8th century), an ethnic Indian astronomer, astrologer, and scholar born in the capital Chang'an.

Chinese geographers such as Jia Dan wrote accurate descriptions of places far abroad. In his work written between 785 and 805, he described the sea route going into the mouth of the Persian Gulf, and that the medieval Iranians (whom he called the people of Luo-He-Yi) had erected 'ornamental pillars' in the sea that acted as lighthouse beacons for ships that might go astray. Confirming Jia's reports about lighthouses in the Persian Gulf, Arabic writers a century after Jia wrote of the same structures, writers such as al-Mas'udi and al-Muqaddasi. The Tang dynasty Chinese diplomat Wang Xuance traveled to Magadha (modern northeastern India) during the 7th century. Afterwards he wrote the book Zhang Tianzhu Guotu (Illustrated Accounts of Central India), which included a wealth of geographical information.

Many histories of previous dynasties were compiled between 636 and 659 by court officials during and shortly after the reign of Emperor Taizong of Tang. These included the Book of Liang, Book of Chen, Book of Northern Qi, Book of Zhou, Book of Sui, Book of Jin, History of Northern Dynasties and the History of Southern Dynasties. Although not included in the official Twenty-Four Histories, the Tongdian and Tang Huiyao were nonetheless valuable written historical works of the Tang period. The Shitong written by Liu Zhiji in 710 was a meta-history, as it covered the history of Chinese historiography in past centuries until his time. The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, compiled by Bianji, recounted the journey of Xuanzang, the Tang era's most renowned Buddhist monk.

Other important literary offerings included Duan Chengshi's (d. 863) Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang, an entertaining collection of foreign legends and hearsay, reports on natural phenomena, short anecdotes, mythical and mundane tales, as well as notes on various subjects. The exact literary category or classification that Duan's large informal narrative would fit into is still debated amongst scholars and historians.

Religion and philosophy

Since ancient times, some Chinese had believed in folk religion and Taoism that incorporated many deities. Practitioners believed the Tao and the afterlife was a reality parallel to the living world, complete with its own bureaucracy and afterlife currency needed by dead ancestors. Funerary practices included providing the deceased with everything they might need in the afterlife, including animals, servants, entertainers, hunters, homes, and officials. This ideal is reflected in Tang dynasty art. This is also reflected in many short stories written in the Tang about people accidentally winding up in the realm of the dead, only to come back and report their experiences.

Buddhism, originating in India around the time of Confucius, continued its influence during the Tang period and was accepted by some members of imperial family, becoming thoroughly sinicized and a permanent part of Chinese traditional culture. In an age before Neo-Confucianism and figures such as Zhu Xi (1130–1200), Buddhism had begun to flourish in China during the Northern and Southern dynasties, and became the dominant ideology during the prosperous Tang. Buddhist monasteries played an integral role in Chinese society, offering lodging for travelers in remote areas, schools for children throughout the country, and a place for urban literati to stage social events and gatherings such as going-away parties. Buddhist monasteries were also engaged in the economy, since their land property and serfs gave them enough revenues to set up mills, oil presses, and other enterprises. Although the monasteries retained 'serfs', these monastery dependents could actually own property and employ others to help them in their work, including their own slaves.

The prominent status of Buddhism in Chinese culture began to decline as the dynasty and central government declined as well during the late 8th century to 9th century. Buddhist convents and temples that were exempt from state taxes beforehand were targeted by the state for taxation. In 845 Emperor Wuzong of Tang finally shut down 4,600 Buddhist monasteries along with 40,000 temples and shrines, forcing 260,000 Buddhist monks and nuns to return to secular life; this episode would later be dubbed one of the Four Buddhist Persecutions in China. Although the ban would be lifted just a few years after, Buddhism never regained its once dominant status in Chinese culture. This situation also came about through a revival of interest in native Chinese philosophies such as Confucianism and Taoism. Han Yu (786–824)—who Arthur F. Wright stated was a "brilliant polemicist and ardent xenophobe"—was one of the first men of the Tang to denounce Buddhism. Although his contemporaries found him crude and obnoxious, he would foreshadow the later persecution of Buddhism in the Tang, as well as the revival of Confucian theory with the rise of Neo-Confucianism of the Song dynasty. Nonetheless, Chán Buddhism gained popularity amongst the educated elite. There were also many famous Chan monks from the Tang era, such as Mazu Daoyi, Baizhang, and Huangbo Xiyun. The sect of Pure Land Buddhism initiated by the Chinese monk Huiyuan (334–416) was also just as popular as Chan Buddhism during the Tang.

Rivaling Buddhism was Taoism, a native Chinese philosophical and religious belief system that found its roots in the Tao Te Ching (a text attributed to a 6th-century BC figure named Lao Tzu) and the Zhuangzi. The ruling Li family of the Tang dynasty actually claimed descent from the ancient Lao Tzu. On numerous occasions where Tang princes would become crown prince or Tang princesses taking vows as Taoist priestesses, their lavish former mansions would be converted into Taoist abbeys and places of worship. Many Taoists were associated with alchemy in their pursuits to find an elixir of immortality and a means to create gold from concocted mixtures of many other elements. Although they never achieved their goals in either of these futile pursuits, they did contribute to the discovery of new metal alloys, porcelain products, and new dyes. The historian Joseph Needham labeled the work of the Taoist alchemists as "protoscience rather than pseudoscience." However, the close connection between Taoism and alchemy, which some sinologists have asserted, is refuted by Nathan Sivin, who states that alchemy was just as prominent (if not more so) in the secular sphere and practiced more often by laymen.

The Tang dynasty also officially recognized various foreign religions. The Assyrian Church of the East, otherwise known as the Nestorian Church or the Church of the East in China, was given recognition by the Tang court. In 781, the Nestorian Stele was created in order to honor the achievements of their community in China. A Christian monastery was established in Shaanxi province where the Daqin Pagoda still stands, and inside the pagoda there is Christian-themed artwork. Although the religion largely died out after the Tang, it was revived in China following the Mongol invasions of the 13th century.

Although the Sogdians had been responsible for transmitting Buddhism to China from India during the 2nd to 4th centuries, soon afterwards they largely converted to Zoroastrianism due to their links to Sassanid Persia. Sogdian merchants and their families living in cities such as Chang'an, Luoyang, and Xiangyang usually built a Zoroastrian temple once their local communities grew larger than 100 households. Sogdians were also responsible for spreading Manicheism in Tang China and the Uighur Khaganate. The Uighurs built the first Manichean monastery in China in 768, yet in 843 the Tang government ordered that the property of all Manichean monasteries be confiscated in response to the outbreak of war with the Uighurs. With the blanket ban on foreign religions two years later, Manicheism was driven underground and never flourished in China again.

Leisure

Much more than earlier periods, the Tang era was renowned for the time reserved for leisure activity, especially for those in the upper classes. Many outdoor sports and activities were enjoyed during the Tang, including archery, hunting, horse polo, cuju (soccer), cockfighting, and even tug of war. Government officials were granted vacations during their tenure in office. Officials were granted 30 days off every three years to visit their parents if they lived away, or 15 days off if the parents lived more than away (travel time not included). Officials were granted nine days of vacation time for weddings of a son or daughter, and either five, three, or one days/day off for the nuptials of close relatives (travel time not included). Officials also received a total of three days off for their son's capping initiation rite into manhood, and one day off for the ceremony of initiation rite of a close relative's son.

Traditional Chinese holidays such as Chinese New Year, Lantern Festival, Cold Food Festival, and others were universal holidays. In the capital city of Chang'an there was always lively celebration, especially for the Lantern Festival since the city's nighttime curfew was lifted by the government for three days straight. Between the years 628 and 758, the imperial throne bestowed a total of sixty-nine grand carnivals nationwide, granted by the emperor in the case of special circumstances such as important military victories, abundant harvests after a long drought or famine, the granting of amnesties, the installment of a new crown prince, etc. For special celebration in the Tang era, lavish and gargantuan-sized feasts were sometimes prepared, as the imperial court had staffed agencies to prepare the meals. This included a prepared feast for 1,100 elders of Chang'an in 664, a feast for 3,500 officers of the Divine Strategy Army in 768, and a feast for 1,200 women of the palace and members of the imperial family in the year 826. Drinking wine and alcoholic beverages was heavily ingrained into Chinese culture, as people drank for nearly every social event. A court official in the 8th century allegedly had a serpentine-shaped structure called the 'Ale Grotto' built with 50,000 bricks on the groundfloor that each featured a bowl from which his friends could drink.

Status in clothing

In general, garments were made from silk, wool, or linen depending on your social status and what you could afford. Furthermore, there were laws that specified what kinds of clothing could be worn by whom. The color of the clothing also indicated rank. "Purple colored clothes were used by officials above the third grade; light red were meant for officials above the fifth grade; dark green was limited to the sixth grade and above officials; light green was solely for officials above the seventh grade; dark cyan was exclusive for officials above the eighth grade; light cyan garments adorned officials above the ninth grade. The common people and all those who did not reside in the palace were allowed to wear yellow colored clothes." During this period, China's power, culture, economy, and influence were thriving. As a result, women could afford to wear loose-fitting, wide-sleeved garments. Even lower-class women's robes would have sleeves four to five feet in width.

Position of women

Concepts of women's social rights and social status during the Tang era were notably liberal-minded for the period. However, this was largely reserved for urban women of elite status, as men and women in the rural countryside labored hard in their different set of tasks; with wives and daughters responsible for more domestic tasks of weaving textiles and rearing of silk worms, while men tended to farming in the fields.

There were many women in the Tang era who gained access to religious authority by taking vows as Taoist priestesses. The head mistresses of high-class courtesans in the North Hamlet of the capital Chang'an acquired large amounts of wealth and power. Said courtesans, who likely influenced the Japanese geishas, were well respected. These courtesans were known as great singers and poets, supervised banquets and feasts, knew the rules to all the drinking games, and were trained to have the utmost respectable table manners.

Although they were renowned for their polite behavior, the courtesans were known to dominate the conversation among elite men, and were not afraid to openly castigate or criticize prominent male guests who talked too much or too loudly, boasted too much of their accomplishments, or had in some way ruined dinner for everyone by rude behavior (on one occasion a courtesan even beat up a drunken man who had insulted her). When singing to entertain guests, courtesans not only composed the lyrics to their own songs, but they popularized a new form of lyrical verse by singing lines written by various renowned and famous men in Chinese history.

It was fashionable for women to be full-figured (or plump). Men enjoyed the presence of assertive, active women. The foreign horse-riding sport of polo from Persia became a wildly popular trend among the Chinese elite, and women often played the sport (as glazed earthenware figurines from the time period portray). The preferred hairstyle for women was to bunch their hair up like "an elaborate edifice above the forehead", while affluent ladies wore extravagant head ornaments, combs, pearl necklaces, face powders, and perfumes. A law was passed in 671 which attempted to force women to wear hats with veils again in order to promote decency, but these laws were ignored as some women started wearing caps and even no hats at all, as well as men's riding clothes and boots, and tight-sleeved bodices.

There were some prominent court women after the era of Empress Wu, such as Yang Guifei (719–756), who had Emperor Xuanzong appoint many of her relatives and cronies to important ministerial and martial positions.

Cuisine

During the earlier Northern and Southern dynasties (420–589), and perhaps even earlier, the drinking of tea (Camellia sinensis) became popular in southern China. Tea was viewed then as a beverage of tasteful pleasure and with pharmacological purpose as well. During the Tang dynasty, tea became synonymous with everything sophisticated in society. The poet Lu Tong (790–835) devoted most of his poetry to his love of tea. The 8th-century author Lu Yu (known as the Sage of Tea) even wrote a treatise on the art of drinking tea, called The Classic of Tea. Although wrapping paper had been used in China since the 2nd century BC, during the Tang dynasty the Chinese were using wrapping paper as folded and sewn square bags to hold and preserve the flavor of tea leaves. Indeed, paper found many other uses besides writing and wrapping during the Tang era.

Earlier, the first recorded use of toilet paper was made in 589 by the scholar-official Yan Zhitui (531–591), and in 851 an Arab traveler commented on how he believed that Tang era Chinese were not careful about cleanliness because they did not wash with water (as was his people's habit) when going to the bathroom; instead, he said, the Chinese simply used paper to wipe themselves.

In ancient times, the Chinese had outlined the five most basic foodstuffs known as the five grains: sesamum, legumes, wheat, panicled millet, and glutinous millet. The Ming dynasty encyclopedist Song Yingxing (1587–1666) noted that rice was not counted amongst the five grains from the time of the legendary and deified Chinese sage Shennong (the existence of whom Yingxing wrote was "an uncertain matter") into the 2nd millenniums BC, because the properly wet and humid climate in southern China for growing rice was not yet fully settled or cultivated by the Chinese. But Song Yingxing also noted that in the Ming dynasty, seven tenths of civilians' food was rice. In fact, in the Tang dynasty rice was not only the most important staple in southern China, but had also become popular in the north, which was for a long time the center of China.

During the Tang dynasty, wheat replaced the position of millet and became the main staple crop. As a consequence, wheat cake shared a considerable amount in the staple of Tang. There were four main kinds of cake: steamed cake, boiled cake, pancake, and Hu cake.

Steamed cake was consumed commonly by both civilians and aristocrats. Like the rougamo in modern Chinese cuisine, steamed cake was usually stuffed by meat and vegetable. There were plenty of shops and packmen selling steamed cake in Chang』an, and its price was also far from expensive. Taiping Guangji recorded a civilian in Chang'an named Zou Luotuo, who was poor and "often push his cart out selling steamed cake."

Boiled cake was the staple of the Northern Dynasty, and it kept its popularity in the Tang dynasty. The definition here was very broad, including current-day wonton, noodles, and many other kinds of food that soak wheat in water. Consuming boiled cake was treated as an effective and popular way of diet therapy. While aristocrats favored wonton, civilians usually consumed noodles and noodle slice soup, because the process to make wonton was heavy and complicated.

Pancake was hard to find in China before the Tang. But in the Tang dynasty pancake started becoming popular. There were also many shops in Tang cities selling pancakes. A story in Taiping Guangji recorded that a merchant in early Tang bought a large vacant lot in Chang』an to set up several shops selling pancake and dumplings.

Hu cake, which means "foreign cake", was extremely popular in Tang. Hu cake was toasted in oven and covered by sesame. Restaurants in Tang usually treated Hu cake as an indispensable food in their menu. A Japanese Buddhist monk Ennin recorded in The Record of a Pilgrimage to China in Search of the Law that at that time Hu cake was popular among all civilians.

During the Tang, the many common foodstuffs and cooking ingredients in addition to those already listed were barley, garlic, salt, turnips, soybeans, pears, apricots, peaches, apples, pomegranates, jujubes, rhubarb, hazelnuts, pine nuts, chestnuts, walnuts, yams, taro, etc. The various meats that were consumed included pork, chicken, lamb (especially preferred in the north), sea otter, bear (which was hard to catch, but there were recipes for steamed, boiled, and marinated bear), and even Bactrian camels. In the south along the coast meat from seafood was by default the most common, as the Chinese enjoyed eating cooked jellyfish with cinnamon, Sichuan pepper, cardamom, and ginger, as well as oysters with wine, fried squid with ginger and vinegar, horseshoe crabs and red swimming crabs, shrimp and pufferfish, which the Chinese called "river piglet".

Some foods were also off-limits, as the Tang court encouraged people not to eat beef (since the bull was a valuable working animal), and from 831 to 833 Emperor Wenzong of Tang even banned the slaughter of cattle on the grounds of his religious convictions to Buddhism.

From the trade overseas and over land, the Chinese acquired peaches from Samarkand, date palms, pistachios, and figs from Greater Iran, pine nuts and ginseng roots from Korea and mangoes from Southeast Asia. In China, there was a great demand for sugar; during the reign of Harsha over North India (r. 606–647), Indian envoys to the Tang brought two makers of sugar who successfully taught the Chinese how to cultivate sugarcane. Cotton also came from India as a finished product from Bengal, although it was during the Tang that the Chinese began to grow and process cotton, and by the Yuan dynasty it became the prime textile fabric in China.

Methods of food preservation were important, and practiced throughout China. The common people used simple methods of preservation, such as digging deep ditches and trenches, brining, and salting their foods. The emperor had large ice pits located in the parks in and around Chang'an for preserving food, while the wealthy and elite had their own smaller ice pits. Each year the emperor had laborers carve 1000 blocks of ice from frozen creeks in mountain valleys, each block with the dimension of by 3 ft by . Frozen delicacies such as chilled melon were enjoyed during the summer.

Science and technology

Engineering

Technology during the Tang period was built also upon the precedents of the past. Previous advancements in clockworks and timekeeping included the mechanical gear systems of Zhang Heng (78–139) and Ma Jun (fl. 3rd century), which gave the Tang mathematician, mechanical engineer, astronomer, and monk Yi Xing (683–727) inspiration when he invented the world's first clockwork escapement mechanism in 725. This was used alongside a clepsydra clock and waterwheel to power a rotating armillary sphere in representation of astronomical observation. Yi Xing's device also had a mechanically timed bell that was struck automatically every hour, and a drum that was struck automatically every quarter-hour; essentially, a striking clock. Yi Xing's astronomical clock and water-powered armillary sphere became well known throughout the country, since students attempting to pass the imperial examinations by 730 had to write an essay on the device as an exam requirement. However, the most common type of public and palace timekeeping device was the inflow clepsydra. Its design was improved c. 610 by the Sui-dynasty engineers Geng Xun and Yuwen Kai. They provided a steelyard balance that allowed seasonal adjustment in the pressure head of the compensating tank and could then control the rate of flow for different lengths of day and night.

There were many other mechanical inventions during the Tang era. These included a 3 ft (0.91 m) tall mechanical wine server of the early 8th century that was in the shape of an artificial mountain, carved out of iron and rested on a lacquered-wooden tortoise frame. This intricate device used a hydraulic pump that siphoned wine out of metal dragon-headed faucets, as well as tilting bowls that were timed to dip wine down, by force of gravity when filled, into an artificial lake that had intricate iron leaves popping up as trays for placing party treats. Furthermore, as the historian Charles Benn describes it:

Yet the use of a teasing mechanical puppet in this wine-serving device wasn't exactly a novel invention of the Tang, since the use of mechanical puppets in China date back to the Qin dynasty (221–207 BC). In the 3rd century Ma Jun had an entire mechanical puppet theater operated by the rotation of a waterwheel. There was also an automatic wine-server known in the ancient Greco-Roman world, a design of the Greek inventor Heron of Alexandria that employed an urn with an inner valve and a lever device similar to the one described above. There are many stories of automatons used in the Tang, including general Yang Wulian's wooden statue of a monk who stretched his hands out to collect contributions; when the number of coins reached a certain weight, the mechanical figure moved his arms to deposit them in a satchel. This weight-and-lever mechanism was exactly like Heron's penny slot machine. Other devices included one by Wang Ju, whose "wooden otter" could allegedly catch fish; Needham suspects a spring trap of some kind was employed here.

In the realm of structural engineering and technical Chinese architecture, there were also government standard building codes, outlined in the early Tang book of the Yingshan Ling (National Building Law). Fragments of this book have survived in the Tang Lü (The Tang Code), while the Song dynasty architectural manual of the Yingzao Fashi (State Building Standards) by Li Jie (1065–1101) in 1103 is the oldest existing technical treatise on Chinese architecture that has survived in full. During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (712–756) there were 34,850 registered craftsmen serving the state, managed by the Agency of Palace Buildings (Jingzuo Jian).

Woodblock printing

Woodblock printing made the written word available to vastly greater audiences. One of the world's oldest surviving printed documents is a miniature Buddhist dharani sutra unearthed at Xi'an in 1974 and dated roughly from 650 to 670. The Diamond Sutra is the first full-length book printed at regular size, complete with illustrations embedded with the text and dated precisely to 868. Among the earliest documents to be printed were Buddhist texts as well as calendars, the latter essential for calculating and marking which days were auspicious and which days were not. With so many books coming into circulation for the general public, literacy rates could improve, along with the lower classes being able to obtain cheaper sources of study. Therefore, there were more lower-class people seen entering the Imperial Examinations and passing them by the later Song dynasty. Although the later Bi Sheng's movable type printing in the 11th century was innovative for his period, woodblock printing that became widespread in the Tang would remain the dominant printing type in China until the more advanced printing press from Europe became widely accepted and used in East Asia. The first use of the playing card during the Tang dynasty was an auxiliary invention of the new age of printing.

Cartography

In the realm of cartography, there were further advances beyond the map-makers of the Han dynasty. When the Tang chancellor Pei Ju (547–627) was working for the Sui dynasty as a Commercial Commissioner in 605, he created a well-known gridded map with a graduated scale in the tradition of Pei Xiu (224–271). The Tang chancellor Xu Jingzong (592–672) was also known for his map of China drawn in the year 658. In the year 785 the Emperor Dezong had the geographer and cartographer Jia Dan (730–805) complete a map of China and her former colonies in Central Asia. Upon its completion in 801, the map was 9.1 m (30 ft) in length and 10 m (33 ft) in height, mapped out on a grid scale of one inch equaling one hundred li (Chinese unit of measuring distance). A Chinese map of 1137 is similar in complexity to the one made by Jia Dan, carved on a stone stele with a grid scale of 100 li. However, the only type of map that has survived from the Tang period are star charts. Despite this, the earliest extant terrain maps of China come from the ancient State of Qin; maps from the 4th century BC that were excavated in 1986.

Medicine

The Chinese of the Tang era were also very interested in the benefits of officially classifying all of the medicines used in pharmacology. In 657, Emperor Gaozong of Tang (r. 649–683) commissioned the literary project of publishing an official materia medica, complete with text and illustrated drawings for 833 different medicinal substances taken from different stones, minerals, metals, plants, herbs, animals, vegetables, fruits, and cereal crops. In addition to compiling pharmacopeias, the Tang fostered learning in medicine by upholding imperial medical colleges, state examinations for doctors, and publishing forensic manuals for physicians. Authors of medicine in the Tang include Zhen Chuan (d. 643) and Sun Simiao (581–682), the former who first identified in writing that patients with diabetes had an excess of sugar in their urine, and the latter who was the first to recognize that diabetic patients should avoid consuming alcohol and starchy foods. As written by Zhen Chuan and others in the Tang, the thyroid glands of sheep and pigs were successfully used to treat goiters; thyroid extracts were not used to treat patients with goiter in the West until 1890. The use of the dental amalgam, manufactured from tin and silver, was first introduced in the medical text Xinxiu Bencao written by Su Gong in 659.

Alchemy, gas cylinders, and air conditioning

Chinese scientists of the Tang period employed complex chemical formulas for an array of different purposes, often found through experiments of alchemy. These included a waterproof and dust-repelling cream or varnish for clothes and weapons, fireproof cement for glass and porcelain wares, a waterproof cream applied to silk clothes of underwater divers, a cream designated for polishing bronze mirrors, and many other useful formulas. The vitrified, translucent ceramic known as porcelain was invented in China during the Tang, although many types of glazed ceramics preceded it.

Ever since the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD), the Chinese had drilled deep boreholes to transport natural gas from bamboo pipelines to stoves where cast iron evaporation pans boiled brine to extract salt. During the Tang dynasty, a gazetteer of Sichuan province stated that at one of these 182 m (600 ft) 'fire wells', men collected natural gas into portable bamboo tubes which could be carried around for dozens of km (mi) and still produce a flame. These were essentially the first gas cylinders; Robert Temple assumes some sort of tap was used for this device.

The inventor Ding Huan (fl. 180 AD) of the Han dynasty invented a rotary fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3 m (10 ft) in diameter and manually powered. In 747, Emperor Xuanzong had a "Cool Hall" built in the imperial palace, which the Tang Yulin describes as having water-powered fan wheels for air conditioning as well as rising jet streams of water from fountains. During the subsequent Song dynasty, written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used.

Historiography

The first classic work about the Tang is the Old Book of Tang by Liu Xu (887–946) et al. of the Later Jin, who redacted it during the last years of his life. This was edited into another history (labeled the New Book of Tang) in order to distinguish it, which was a work by the Song historians Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072), Song Qi (998–1061), et al. of the Song dynasty (between the years 1044 and 1060). Both of them were based upon earlier annals, yet those are now lost. Both of them also rank among the Twenty-Four Histories of China. One of the surviving sources of the Old Book of Tang, primarily covering up to 756, is the Tongdian, which Du You presented to the emperor in 801. The Tang period was again placed into the enormous universal history text of the Zizhi Tongjian, edited, compiled, and completed in 1084 by a team of scholars under the Song dynasty Chancellor Sima Guang (1019–1086). This historical text, written with three million Chinese characters in 294 volumes, covered the history of China from the beginning of the Warring States (403 BC) until the beginning of the Song dynasty (960).

国号

隋朝建立后，隋文帝封李虎之子李昞为唐国公，后由李昞之子李渊继承爵位。在建国之后，以唐为国号。

国号唐是晋国的古名，泛指今山西省的中南部地域。传说远古帝尧号称陶唐氏，建都于现在山西中南部，后人遂称其所都为唐地。周成王分封其弟虞在古唐地上，为北唐国，后来改国号为晋国。原建国于唐地的帝尧后人则移封现湖北省枣阳市一带，为南唐国，恰好与隋朝国号来源的随国比邻。

历史

唐朝时期漫长，大致上可以分成前期与后期。其分界点可按政治与经济角度区分成安史之乱与两税法的颁布。安史之乱之前，唐朝国力强盛，经济繁荣，武将四处开疆拓土，文臣稳定朝政，是唐朝的鼎盛时期。乱事发生后，唐朝遭遇许多问题，国力趋向衰退。从经济的角度看，前期采取均田制与租庸调制，在唐德宗颁布两税法后，中国后期的土地制度和赋税制度基本上以两税法为基础。比较传统的分法有四分法，即高祖至高宗的初唐、武则天至玄宗的「盛唐」、肃宗至文宗的「中唐」与武宗至哀帝的「晚唐」四个时期。

高祖开国

传统史料以唐朝皇室出自陇西李氏，陈寅恪经考证认为其为赵郡隆庆李氏之后，而朱希祖考证认为确系陇西李氏，属于关陇集团之一，与北周皇室和隋朝皇室的关系密切。

其先祖为南北朝时期的李虎，他因功被封为西魏北周的八柱国之一，封陇西郡公。其子李昞在隋时封唐国公。

唐朝皇室以老子后裔自居，于佛道之争时偏袒道教。和尚法琳称李氏非老子李耳后裔，与陇西李氏无关，乃拓跋氏之后，因而触怒皇室，被流放益州而死。宋代朱熹与郑思肖以李唐闺门失礼家法缪戾，有李唐源自夷狄的说法。冯承钧认为李虎的兄弟名为起头与乞豆，怀疑李渊家族有可能出身胡人。日本学者金井之忠发表〈李唐源流出于夷狄考〉主张李渊家族出身胡人，并提出李渊家族可能源自高车叱李氏的假说，陈寅恪在〈三论李唐氏族问题〉反对他的说法，举证李渊先祖李熙出身汉族。刘盼遂与王桐龄考据认为李渊家族应为拓跋氏后裔。刘盼遂之后取消了自己的观点，但仍引发学界如向达、岑仲勉与陈登原等人讨论。因为唐朝先人曾被赐姓大野氏，台湾学者刘学铫认为唐朝皇室有源出高车的可能。中华人民共和国学者苏日巴达拉哈也主张李渊家族出自高车。

陈寅恪认为李唐先世虽为汉人，但在李虎之后，其家族长期与胡人通婚，已混有胡族血统。这个说法得到钱穆、萨孟武等人的支持，如《剑桥中国史》等著作皆采用这个说法。岑仲勉曾讨论缪凤林支持李唐家族为胡汉混血，但认为血统混和自古甚多，不值得讨论。根据《新修本草》记载，严耕望推论李世民可能拥有胡人血统。

日本学者杉山正明提出了「拓跋国家」这一概念，将北齐、北周、隋朝、唐朝这些虽非拓跋氏所建，但统治阶级互相通婚，且国家形态与政治制度相互影响的政权，统统归入到「拓跋国家」中。森安孝夫也认同拓跋国家的说法，认为唐朝是由多民族融合组成的国家，不能单纯以汉民族国家观点来研究。不过，这兴许是部分现代学者自己发明之说词，目前为止没有任何唐朝的历史文献显示唐朝政府和唐朝人民曾自称「拓跋国家」或「拓跋氏」，古突厥阙特勤碑中的汉文铭文也未有此种称谓。相反地，唐朝官方文献和外交文书明确自称本国为「汉」、「汉国」及「大唐」；唐朝民间诗歌亦常称本民族为「汉人」，有明显胡汉之别。唐朝政治制度也是以中原王朝式的三省六部制和儒道思想为主，并非游牧部落制。

唐朝皇室先祖为南北朝时期的李虎，他因功被封为西魏北周的八柱国之一。隋朝建立后，隋文帝封李虎之子李昞为唐国公，后由李昞之子李渊继承爵位。李渊受隋炀帝重用，于616年被派为太原留守，但隋炀帝对他也不放心，派王威与高君雅监督之。隋朝在大业年间，由于隋炀帝过度使用国力与三征高句丽的失败，使得各地民变不止，史称隋末民变。李渊见天下大乱，隋朝的灭亡不可扭转，便生起取而代之的念头。617年李渊杀王威、高君雅，在太原起兵造反。不久，李渊率诸子众将攻破守备关中的屈突通，占领隋都大兴城。李渊拥立杨侑为帝，是为隋恭帝，遥尊隋炀帝为太上皇，自任大丞相，进封唐王。而在扬州的隋炀帝，他心灰意冷，不愿返回关中，最后于618年的江都政变中被宇文化及等叛军杀害。李渊藉此机会，于同年五月迫使隋恭帝禅位，建国唐朝，即唐高祖。都城大兴改名为长安，封嫡长子李建成为太子、嫡次子李世民为秦王、嫡四子李元吉为齐王。

李渊建立唐朝后以关中为基地逐步统一天下。在入主关中前，先派使吹捧占据河南的瓦冈军李密，使其成为东方的屏障。入主关中后，派李世民平定西北金城的薛举、薛仁杲，派唐使安兴贵、安修仁生擒武威的李轨。620年派李世民击败入侵河东（今山西省）的刘武周、宋金刚。而后洛阳郑帝王世充与河北夏帝窦建德宣布结盟，联合抗唐。622年李世民击溃联军，俘窦建德，王世充投降。窦建德的馀部刘黑闼也被李建成击溃，河北至此平定。623年辅公祏率杜伏威馀部在丹阳反唐，隔年被唐军俘杀，江南平定。而两湖地区也在621年唐将李靖于唐平萧铣之战获胜，梁帝萧铣于江陵降唐。翌年，岭南冯盎降服，又虔州林士弘死，汉地归唐朝所有。依据五行相生顺序，隋朝「火」德之后为「土」德，因此唐朝以「土」为皇朝德运并以与土德对应之黄色为正色。

贞观之治

唐朝的崛起有赖秦王李世民，他的军事才能突出，率军赢得多次关键胜利。扫平群雄后，太子李建成与李世民为了皇位而斗争，626年李世民发动玄武门之变，杀了哥哥太子李建成与弟弟齐王李元吉，控制长安。李渊深知形势，于是禅让帝位，成为太上皇。李世民继位，即唐太宗。

唐太宗励精图治、纳谏如流，逐渐恢复唐朝的国力。在内政方面，唐太宗推行均田制与租庸调制，提升农业发展。在职官制度上，改良隋朝的制度，形成三省六部和科举选士制，限制皇权发展与贵族世袭等恶习。唐太宗不计出身，网罗一大批精明强干的大臣，比如房玄龄、杜如晦、长孙无忌、魏徵、马周、高士廉和萧瑀等文臣，尉迟敬德、李靖、侯君集、程知节、李世绩和秦叔宝等武将。此外，唐太宗派官员四处询问百姓的生活情况，然后把各官员的功过写在屏风上，以便褒贬。

对外方面，唐太宗采取积极防御、以战止战的策略，以及用羁縻与武力的方式安抚四方。隋末唐初之际，北方东突厥汗国十分强大，时常南下侵扰，并且介入中原各势力。唐朝初期百废待举，626年东突厥突然袭击长安，率军抵达距离长安不远的泾阳（今陕西咸阳泾阳县）。对此唐太宗亲率高士廉、房玄龄等在渭水隔河与突厥可汗对峙，定下渭水之盟。之后，唐太宗积极对付突厥，挑拨颉利可汗与突利可汗的关系，以及突厥与周围诸部的关系。627年东突厥的藩属薛延陀、回纥、拔也古、同罗诸部因为不认同颉利可汗的政令与改革国俗，纷纷脱离，改立薛延陀部为可汗，突利可汗也归降唐朝。628年朔方人梁洛仁杀盘据夏州的梁师都，归降唐朝。而东突厥在分裂后又遇到大雪侵袭，牲畜大多被冻死饿死。629年李靖率骑兵奇袭攻灭东突厥，隔年北方各族入贡长安，诸民族尊称唐太宗为天可汗。635年派李靖攻占吐谷浑，657年派苏定方西征攻下西突厥汗国，641年派文成公主与吐蕃赞普松赞干布通婚。这些都稳定唐朝与四方各国的关系。

贞观时期国家安定，经济得到恢复和发展，史称「贞观之治」。《资治通鉴》记载，贞观四年（630年）一斗米不过三、四钱，全年死刑犯仅二十九人。成书于唐中宗时期的《贞观政要》中对于唐太宗政绩的总结，成为日本和新罗帝王的治国教科书，亦为后世君主模旁学习的对象。

日月凌空

唐太宗晚年，发生太子李承乾与魏王李泰内斗的事件。所以唐太宗废承乾，逐李泰，改立晋王李治为太子。唐太宗去世后，李治即位，即唐高宗。此时唐朝承继贞观之治，国力鼎盛，史称永徽之治。当时尚有宿将如李绩、苏定方、薛仁贵等，名臣长孙无忌、褚遂良等。对内持续推行均田制，选用较低级但有才能的官吏。对外于659年消灭西突厥，疆域西扩至咸海与阿姆河一带，设立安西都护府于碎叶城（今吉尔吉斯托克马克市）。并且于葱岭以西设置十六个都督府，让吐火罗叶护、诃达罗支国王等等中亚君主兼任都督。在东方，与新罗联合灭掉东北强国高句丽和百济，并白江口之战击败日本援军。唐朝在朝鲜半岛建立安东都护府，最终导致唐罗战争，也间接促使新罗统一朝鲜半岛。

高宗中期以后，任命皇后武氏协助理政。武则天原为太宗时期的才人，太宗死后被高宗招入宫中。她在权力斗争中获胜，被立为皇后，史称「素多智计，兼涉文史」。656年起，高宗因健康原因，许多政事都逐渐交给武后处理，武后成为最高统治者之一，与高宗并称「二圣」（天皇与天后）。高宗去世后，太子李显即位，是为唐中宗。因为与中宗不合，武太后不久将中宗废为庐陵王，改立四子李旦为帝，是为唐睿宗。武后平定徐敬业的反叛后，于690年废睿宗，即皇帝位，改国号为周，即武周，改东都洛阳为「神都」，上尊号「圣神皇帝」，人称「武则天」，改立李旦为皇嗣，成为中国历史上唯一的女皇帝。在武则天掌权与称帝的期间，国家人口持续增长，但外战不利，疆域大量萎缩。武则天执政期间，科举制度得以进一步完善，开创出殿试和武举，她大力提拔科举出身的官员。这批官员中有许多在后世成为贤臣能吏、如狄仁杰、张柬之、张仁愿、姚崇等。。然而由于武则天本人信仰佛教，她大量赏赐和尚尼姑田产，徵用农田建造佛寺，土地兼并严重、导致均田制崩溃。。武则天执政前期为了维持自己的统治，或杀害或流放了数位名将，啓用的「武三思」、「武懿宗」、「薛怀义」等人多是平庸之辈，导致其执政时期外战败多胜少，国家疆域大量萎缩。武则天执政的另一特点是强力控管，主要有严厉镇压徐敬业等反对派、屠杀唐宗室亲王与支持唐朝的大臣将领。鼓励告密，暗中监控官吏、诸侯，以及推广酷吏制度。扶持武三思、上官婉儿等党羽。这些在后世经常受到史学家的批评。

武则天晚年，听从狄仁杰的劝告，重立李显为太子，改立李旦为相王。705年武则天病重时，宰相张柬之与将领李多祚等人拥太子李显发动政变，他们杀女皇的男宠张易之兄弟，逼武则天退位。中宗李显重祚，唐朝复辟，封其弟李旦为安国相王，其妹太平公主为镇国太平公主，史称神龙政变。中宗统治经验颇为缺乏，在位时政治腐败，贪墨成风。他受到韦后、女儿安乐公主和武氏党羽武三思等人迷惑，将功臣张柬之和敬珲等人全部流放诛杀。韦后与安乐公主野心勃勃，想要成为武则天第二。他们与上官婉儿联手迫使太子李重俊发动景龙之变，重俊最后事败被杀。710年韦后和安乐公主疑似唆使他人在饼中下毒害死中宗，立温王李重茂为帝，即殇帝，并且打算加害相王李旦。李旦之子李隆基在姑母太平公主的协助下发动唐隆之变，诛尽韦后与武氏势力，拥立睿宗李旦复辟为帝。睿宗复位后，立其子李隆基为太子，同意其妹太平公主干预政局，双方时常发生权力斗争。712年睿宗决定禅让帝位，太子李隆基即位，即唐玄宗。但是玄宗宣称太平公主又准备用羽林军兵变。隔年，玄宗赐死太平公主，发兵诛杀与其党羽，即先天之变，结束唐朝自唐高宗中期以来女性主理政治局面，并结束自神龙政变8年以来多次在首都政变和政局混乱的局面，结束了干政之祸。。

极盛而衰

唐玄宗时期可分为开元与天宝两个部分，其中开元时期的政治比较清明。因为武韦当政以来政治日益败坏，唐玄宗提出以武、韦为戒，以贞观为榜样，作为执政的指导思想。他先后任用姚崇、宋璟、卢怀慎、张九龄与韩休等贤臣，并且广纳谏言。例如采纳张九龄的建议，将京官中有能之士外调为都督刺史以训练行政能力，又将有为的都督刺史升为京官。增进中央与地方的沟通、了解和信任。裁减武周中宗时期的员外官等冗官，精简机构以便节省开支与提升行政能力。严格执行法律，抑制权贵，就算是皇亲国戚犯罪，也绳之以法。对于稳定社会秩序产生良好的影响。加强执行均田制，打击土豪。发展农业生产，兴修水利，扩大耕地面积，大大提升农业生产力。对外方面，改善与吐蕃、东突厥、契丹与奚的关系，推行和亲政策。听从姚崇与宋璟的建议，充实边防军务，并且避免与外族发生战争。这些措施使唐朝进入第二个全盛时期，人口大量增长，物产丰富，史称开元盛世。当时不仅中原地区、江淮地区以及成都平原经济发达，连人口较少的陇右河西地区也逐渐繁荣。

天宝时期时，唐玄宗志得意满，放纵享乐，不问国事，先后宠爱武惠妃及儿媳杨贵妃。此时国政渐乱，唐玄宗罢免贤相张九龄，相继以李林甫与杨国忠为相。李林甫有「口蜜腹剑」的恶名，，他蔽塞言路，排斥贤才，采取任用不擅文采的蕃将为边将以杜绝「出将入相」之源，使得唐廷陆续任用高仙芝、哥舒翰与安禄山等边将。此时宦官也逐渐崛起，高力士权势炙手可热。在军事上，由于唐朝多年的战争使得府兵制崩溃，兵源逐渐改为募兵制，禁军也进一步获得扩大。唐玄宗为了便于管控辽阔的边疆，于722年设置九个节度使与一个经略使。节度使不只负责军事，之后还兼顾地方民政与财务，久之形成节度使尾大不掉的局面，也成为藩镇割据的远因。对外方面，唐玄宗好大喜功，为此边将经常挑起对外战事，以邀战功。当时唐朝正与吐蕃、黑衣大食（即阿拉伯帝国的阿拔斯王朝）争夺在西域与中亚的势力，其中以751年的怛罗斯战役最有名。唐将高仙芝被阿拔斯王朝与石国联军击溃而丧失在中亚的地位，而后因为中土爆发安史之乱，唐朝也没有恢复地位的打算。

节度使的权力甚大，当与中央发生冲突时，就很有机会发生叛乱。当时又以身兼范阳、平卢、河东三镇节度使的安禄山最有机会，他甚获唐玄宗宠信，与丞相杨国忠勾心斗角。755年十一月，安禄山以讨伐杨国忠为由发动叛乱，史称安史之乱。杨国忠与封常清认为敌军不足忧虑，命郭子仪自朔方出兵河北、高仙芝提大军出潼关战关东。十二月，封高两将皆败，东都洛阳沦陷，唐军退守潼关。封高二人被谗言所杀，改由哥舒翰坚守潼关。于河北举兵的常山（今河北正定）太守颜杲卿也在隔年正月被叛将史思明击溃，关东一带尽数沦陷。然而郭子仪与河东李光弼进军河北，会师恒州（今河北真定），击败叛军将领史思明，叛军军心大乱。然而，唐玄宗与杨国忠急于平乱，强迫哥舒翰出兵。六月，哥舒翰将兵八万与贼将崔乾佑战于灵宝西原，官军大败，死者十六七。哥舒翰退至潼关，为其帐下火拔归仁以左右数十骑执之降贼，关门不守，京师大骇，唐玄宗紧急南逃蜀地成都，途中发生马嵬驿之变，杨国忠与杨贵妃在愤怒士兵的要求下被杀。而太子李亨奉唐玄宗之命，前往西北灵武募兵。安禄山占据长安后建僭燕。七月，李亨抵达灵武后，在宦官李辅国拥立下称帝，即唐肃宗，奉唐玄宗为太上皇。

唐肃宗命其子李俶统领诸将，以李泌辅佐，派仆固怀恩出使回纥请兵。当时唐将房管反攻长安失败，局势一度危急。757年叛军内讧，安禄山之子安庆绪杀父夺位，史思明回守范阳，并掌握河北军力。继而郭子仪和李光弼率军返回灵武，并联合回纥，于年底收复长安。然而叛军早于十月攻克江淮重镇睢阳（今河南商丘），张巡与许远战死。所幸郭子仪接著攻下洛阳，牵制叛军。不久，安庆绪退回邺城（今河北临漳），谋除史思明。史思明得知后投降唐朝，叛军势力只剩邺城一带，758年郭子仪、李光弼等九节度使围攻邺城。然而唐廷想要消灭史思明之事外泄，史思明于隔年三月率叛军南下击溃唐军，史称邺城之战。郭子仪被鱼朝恩谗毁而返回长安；史思明杀安庆绪，并吞其部，自称帝，以范阳为都；李光弼因叛军攻克洛阳而退守，局势急转直下。761年李光弼反攻洛阳失败，史思明获捷后居然被其子史朝义所杀，叛军分崩离析。762年太上皇与唐肃宗相继去世，太子李豫（原名李俶）继位，即唐代宗。唐代宗派其子李适统领诸将，仆固怀恩为副，率唐军与回纥军攻克洛阳。史朝义北走范阳，仆固怀恩率军追击，河北叛将李怀仙也投降唐军，并一同追击。763年正月，史朝义在石头（今河北唐山东北）自缢，八年的战乱才告平定。

藩镇割据

安史之乱成为唐朝历史上的转折点。藩镇割据、外族入侵、宦官专权与牛李党争等蜂拥而至，成为唐朝的内忧外患。唐室为了尽快结束战事，将安史降将就地封为节度使以安抚之。为了提防降将复叛，又遍地安置节度使。由于节度使兼管地方军事、政治和经济，全国各地几乎处于半独立的状态。战后关东人丁锐减，土地大量荒芜，河北之地逐渐胡化，人民好武轻文，与诗赋取士的关中之地相比，形成截然不同的文化区。由于边防军调回平乱，外族纷纷入侵。吐蕃占领陇西、攻入关中，长安一度沦陷。回纥的勒索也消耗国力。宦官专权，李辅国、程元振拥立唐代宗为帝，是唐朝第一个受宦官拥立的皇帝，宦官鱼朝恩更被委任统领禁兵。779年唐代宗就在这些乱事中去世，长子李适继位，即唐德宗。

唐德宗在初期颇能励精图治，坚决削灭藩镇，藩镇对其较为敬畏。他起用杨炎推行两税法，以刘晏改革漕运，修改盐法，行常平法以改善财政。但是他为人刚愎忌刻，没有任人之明。781年任用奸相卢杞后，政治日非。听信卢杞谗言，诛杀杨刘两臣。政治的败坏使藩镇逐渐轻视，最后爆发乱事。同年，成德李宝臣去世，其子李惟岳不被唐室同意继任，他就联合魏博田悦与淄青李纳举兵叛乱。唐室派马燧、李晟击败叛军，田悦被中央军围困于魏州（今河北大名），李惟岳则被部下王武俊所杀。另一方面，卢龙朱泚入朝后，由其弟朱滔继任卢龙节度使。由于卢龙朱滔与成德王武俊对朝廷不满，就联合淄青李纳、淮西节度使（约今河南省东南）李希烈叛乱，共推朱滔为盟主。调来抵抗淮西的泾原军也因为对朝廷赏赐不满，爆发泾原兵变，唐帝出逃奉天（今陕西乾县）。泾原军入长安后，共立朱泚为帝，并且包围奉天。李晟紧急率中央军回师关中，与朔方军李怀光解奉天之围。事后，唐德宗因卢杞谗言而不召见李怀光，虽然最后卢杞被贬，李怀光仍然怨恨唐帝。784年唐德宗采用陆贽之策，同意诸藩镇的要求，只有朱泚不赦，并且废除苛税，诸藩镇纷纷归服。朱滔和李希烈不愿投降，拉拢李怀光倒戈，唐德宗又逃到梁州（今陕西南郑）。同年，李晟收复长安，朱泚于东逃之际被部下所杀，李怀光也在隔年被马燧、浑瑊所灭，淮西李希烈也被部下所杀，至此乱事平定。然而，唐室承认藩镇的统治权，加深割据局面。由于唐德宗不信任将领，禁军转由宦官掌控，宦官权势薰天。唐德宗晚年任用奸臣裴延龄，并且亲昵宦官贪吏，国政日衰。805年唐德宗去世，太子李诵继位，即唐顺宗。

唐代宗遗留下来的问题越来越严重，唐顺宗与唐宪宗都企图解决，其中唐宪宗较为成功，实现元和中兴。唐顺宗以韦执谊为宰相，启用以王叔文为首的改革派。他们废除欺压百姓的宫市和五坊小儿，减轻税赋。任韩泰掌控神策军，试图夺取宦官军权，史称永贞革新。同年，唐顺宗中风，宦官俱文珍利用太子李纯想做皇帝的心理，联合韦皋等等藩镇迫使唐顺宗让位，藉此扳倒改革派，史称永贞内禅。太子李纯继位，即唐宪宗。唐宪宗颇能驾驭宦官与外廷，做事勤勉政务，善于纳谏。他采纳杜黄裳的建议著手削藩。当时全国共有四十六处藩镇，大都在半独立的状态，只剩浙江一带还供应朝廷的财务来源。他采取扩宽财路，力行节俭的方式以稳固财力。由于藩镇中以安史系最强，他先从较弱的藩镇下手。806年剑南西川节度副使刘辟、夏绥留后杨惠琳与隔年的镇海李锜先后叛变，被唐室一一平定。接著是牵制数十万唐军的安史系淮西节度使吴元济，814年由于吴元济四处掠夺且私自传位继承，唐宪宗先后派十六镇的兵力讨伐之，然而未能成功。期间淄青李师道与成德王承宗派人刺杀主战派宰相武元衡，唐帝复以裴度代替，并以李诉（李晟之子）主讨战事。817年李诉采降将李佑之计，雪中奇袭吴元济总部蔡州（今河南汝南），淮西平定。淄青李师道恐慌，唐宪宗派李光颜、李诉率军讨伐。两年后李师道被部下所杀，淄青平定。河北方面，魏博田弘正支持唐室。王承宗曾经反叛唐室，淮西平定后与卢龙刘总归顺唐室。到819年，全国藩镇在名义上都服从中央，派使纳贡，史称元和中兴。然而唐宪宗对国事有点荒怠，喜好营建豪宅。他十分崇佛，曾经赴法门寺奉迎佛骨，韩愈劝谏而被贬。

820年唐宪宗在大明宫被宦官毒死，河北三镇复叛，中兴时期结束。821年卢龙刘总离职，唐室派张弘靖接管。张弘靖管理不当，卢龙兵拥护朱克融叛变。移镇成德的田弘正被将领王庭凑夺位杀害。魏博田布（田正弘之子）被军队迫死，魏博军拥护史宪诚叛变，至此河北三镇复叛。当河北未叛之时，大臣萧俛、段文昌建议国家裁军。如今被裁之兵都投奔河北三镇，助长其势。然而此后的河北三镇并非持续强盛，唐敬宗与唐武宗期间，河北三镇大多受制其强兵，有时还被部下篡位，远远不如当初的跋扈。而各地藩镇依然听命于中央，直到黄巢之乱为止。

宦党争权

唐朝中央的政治大权大多由皇帝与宰相掌控，但在天宝之后转变成皇帝与内廷宦官的联合，外廷宰相变成政治上的二流角色。泾原兵变后，皇帝不再信任武臣，宦官更加把持者中央禁军（即神策军）。再加上唐朝中后期的皇帝普遍不立皇后，导致没有外戚势力可以平衡宦权，相权又低落，使得宦官势力极度膨胀，永贞内禅事件更使宦官成功击败外廷与士大夫。

掌控军政大权的宦官一跃成为中央的幕后掌控者，唐宪宗之后的皇帝大多被宦官任意废立，例如宦官王守澄就是一个好例子。820年唐宪宗被宦官陈弘志毒死，这个事件背后是宦官王守澄指使。王守澄扶持太子李桓继位，即唐穆宗。他即位后游乐无度，河北三镇复叛，宦官背后掌控的牛李党争亦愈演愈烈。唐穆宗即位三年就去世，其子李湛继位，即唐敬宗，大权仍由王守澄掌控。唐敬宗同样不理朝政，专好游乐击球摆宴。826年唐敬宗出去「打夜狐」，回宫后大摆宴席，被宦官刘克明所杀。刘克明有意夺王守澄权，拥立绛王李悟。王守澄得知后以兵迎立唐穆宗之子江王李函，并且杀死政敌。李函继位，即唐文宗。当时王守澄权势最大，其次为陈弘志、仇士良等。

唐文宗勤勉听政、生活节俭，本身十分厌恶宦官，随时想联合外廷大臣扳倒宦官。831年与宰相宋申锡合谋失败，宋申锡被杀。而后唐文宗与大臣李训、郑注联手发动政变。他们都是王守澄推荐的，因此宦官毫不忌讳。李郑二人先建议唐文宗提拔与王不合的仇士良，并且杖杀元和逆首陈弘志，贬死若干掌权宦官。835年，唐文宗以李训为宰相、郑注掌凤翔节度使，内外呼应。接著密派中使毒杀王守澄，至此元和逆党皆诛杀殆尽。李训更扩充势力与军权，与只掌握神策军的宦官尚可一拼。835年李训发动甘露之变，意图将皇帝从宦官手里抢出，但宦官仇士良抢先夺回皇帝，并且以神策军击溃政敌，诛杀大臣。甘露之变后，宦官们团结一致对外，并且牢固地掌握军政大权，皇帝与大臣徒具摆饰，即便是后期的唐武宗与唐宣宗也无法消灭宦官的势力。而大臣只能借藩镇对抗宦官权力，埋下晚唐藩镇入关夺权的阴影。840年郁郁寡欢的唐文宗去世，其弟在宦官仇士良的拥立下继位，即唐武宗。由于当时朝廷派系林立，仇士良只好让唐武宗亲自处理朝政。唐武宗重用李德裕以削减仇士良权力，也提出一连串振兴朝廷的政绩，史称会昌中兴。他大力推行灭佛，史称会昌灭佛。唐武宗推行道教，希望长生不老，最后因为服金药去世。

在唐宪宗到唐宣宗期间，发生较长的党争，即称牛李党争。这两派分成以经学为正统、大多是关东世族的李党，主要有李吉甫、李德裕、郑覃；以文彩华丽、高宗武后以来进士科出身的牛党，主要有李宗闵、牛僧孺等。两派士大夫背后都有宦官当后台，宦官有最终掌政权。两派明争暗斗的很厉害，徒然消耗国力。政见方面，李党主张对藩镇与吐蕃用兵，而牛党主张和平。牛党倾力拥护科举制度，李党极力要求改革。李党建议精简国家机构，牛党反之。党争起始于808年的科举考试，当时宰相李吉甫（李德裕之父）主张对藩镇用兵，举人李宗闵、牛僧孺与皇甫湜在考卷里批评朝政失当。李吉甫得知后打压这些人，这引起朝野哗然，李吉甫最后也失势，朝中大臣也逐渐形成两党以互相斗争。然而当时主战派宦官吐突承璀把持权力，所以李党仍然得势。唐穆宗时，由牛党人物钱徽主持进士考试，却被告徇私舞弊。在时任翰林学士的李德裕证实下，钱徽被降职，李宗闵也受牵连而被贬谪到外地。从此牛李两党各树朋党，互向倾轧。李党有李德裕、裴度、李绅等，牛党有李宗闵、牛僧孺与李逢吉等。然而，主和派宦官王守澄崛起，李党失势，时任宰相的牛僧孺与李宗闵、李逢吉联手，牛党势大，李德裕被罢免外放。牛党的优势一直到823年，牛僧孺因为被唐文宗不满而罢相，隔年由李党的李德裕上台，这是显然与王守澄放弃牛党有关。之后王守澄支持李训与郑注，极力打压牛李两党。甘露之变后李郑势力崩溃，宦官由仇士良掌权。唐武宗时任用李德裕为宰相，极力排斥牛党。

846年唐武宗去世，宦官们发生权力斗争，其叔李忱在宦官马元贽的扶持之下即位，即唐宣宗。由于李党失势，李德裕被贬黜到崖州（今海南琼山），至此长达40年的牛李党争结束。唐宣宗表面上是容易被宦官利用的君主，但即位以后励精图治，加强皇权、抑制宦官权力，是时唐朝又出现短暂的复兴景象，史称大中暂治。然而唐宣宗为人多疑苛察，使得上下莫不粉饰太平；他崇奉道教，一直希望能够通过服用丹药来长生不老。859年唐宣宗因服用丹药过度而去世。实际上，大中暂治并不稳定。唐宣宗晚年，国内已有乱象，他死后不久就爆发寇乱。

残唐国碎

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唐宣宗去世后，相继为帝的唐懿宗与唐僖宗是著名的无道昏君，使唐朝的国势一直走下坡。政治败坏、社会贫富差距过大，不少叛乱相继发生，唐朝经济命脉的江南地区也被破坏殆尽，彻底动摇这个政权，也产生李国昌、朱全忠等新藩镇。859年唐懿宗继位，他为人骄奢淫逸，宠信宦官；并且笃信佛教。为了崇佛，不惜削减军费。860年后相继发生裘甫之乱、庞勋之变与王郢之变（僖宗时期）。其中庞勋之变破坏关东地区的经济，有赖沙陀军首领朱邪赤心率军助战而定，朱邪赤心因功赐名为李国昌，子称李克用。873年唐僖宗继位，僖宗专好击球、斗鸡，寡闻朝政，更大的叛乱在北方诞生。由于关东连年水灾，加上政治败坏，盐价锐升，使得盗贼不断。874年王仙芝聚众于长垣（今河南省长垣县）起事，隔年攻陷山东西部、流窜河南到淮南一带，声势益盛。878年王仙芝战死于黄梅（今湖北省黄梅县），馀部溃散投奔黄巢。黄巢由亳州（今安徽省亳州市）南下掠夺江南与岭南地区，沿路屠杀不断，并且攻陷商业大城广州，华南经济几乎全毁。879年因为军队遭遇瘟疫，黄巢率军经桂州、沿湘江北上窜回江南。隔年，黄巢正式西进，攻陷洛阳与潼关。掌权宦官田令孜带唐僖宗逃往四川，黄巢入长安后称帝，号称大齐，改元金统。各地勤王之师也因为号令不整，收复的长安又被黄巢夺回。唐室只好赦免叛逃漠北的李国昌、李克用父子，李克用率沙陀兵马，协助唐军克复长安。另一方面，黄巢部将朱温投降，赐名朱全忠，受封宣武节度使（治汴州）。黄巢东走并且包围朱全忠于陈州。884年李克用率军解陈州之围，并且追击黄巢军。黄巢于隔年被其甥林言斩杀，黄巢之乱平定。而后，黄巢降将秦宗权叛变，率军在中原地区四处攻掠，一度攻陷东都（今河南省洛阳市），造成「极目千里、无复烟火」的局面，直到唐昭宗时才由朱全忠平定。

平定民变后的唐室因为国力衰退而被关中藩镇反噬。而宦官与外廷为了政治斗争又拉拢藩镇加入战局，最后演变成各藩镇争夺朝廷。这些实力军头们以李国昌、朱全忠与李茂贞最强。885年唐僖宗返京后，仍然信任宦官田令孜。田令孜与河中节度使（辖今山西省南部）王重荣交恶，双方都拉拢藩镇并抗衡。王重荣与李克用联军成功的攻入长安，田令孜又带唐僖宗出京避难。原本与田令孜合作的朱玫、李昌符也倒戈，率军追击田令孜。两人奉襄王李熅监国，朱玫拜相，李昌符暗中不满，在兴元（今陕西南郑）的唐室趁机说服王重荣、李克用与李昌符联兵收复长安。唐僖宗返京途中又与李昌符发生冲突，当时王重荣被部下所杀，唐僖宗有赖李茂贞平定才得以返回长安，李茂贞也继任凤翔节度使。888年唐僖宗去世，其弟李晔被宦官杨复恭拥立，即唐昭宗。宣武朱全忠与河东李克用因故不合，双方上至朝廷，下至藩镇，都斗争不断。当时张全义与李罕之争夺河阳节度使（治河南省孟州市），双方分别拉朱全忠与李克用对战。结果朱全忠获胜，兼并河阳、洛阳，击败秦宗权后几乎占领全河南省。当时宦官杨复恭与宰相张浚不和，双方分别拉拢李克用与朱全忠。890年朱全忠与张浚攻河东军失败，张浚被贬。李克用趁机并吞昭义的潞州、泽州，约占领今山西省地区。不久宦官杨复恭失势，南依其兄子山南西道节度使杨守亮叛变，唐室以李茂贞等人平乱，李克用在朝廷的势力衰退。凤翔李茂贞因不能扩张地盘与唐帝不和，双方发生战争。最后李茂贞与王行瑜战胜，他们掌控关中地区，宦官与外廷受其管制，唐室只剩首都一地。

此时唐帝沦为各藩镇角力的战利品，最后被藩镇掳走，取而代之。895年河中王重盈去世，王行瑜、李茂贞与韩建等人与河东李克用争夺河中。王行瑜趁机入京杀宰相韦昭度等人，并谋废唐昭宗。李克用紧急率军入援，而王行瑜被部下所杀，唐室才得以安定。事后，唐室建立殿后四军，李茂贞、韩建抢先于896年逼近长安，唐昭宗逃到华州，殿后四军被废。最后有赖李克用、朱全忠率军入援，唐昭宗得以于898年返回长安。900年宦官刘季述立唐昭宗嫡长子皇太子李𥙿为皇帝（李缜，即德王），901年李缜被崔胤所废，改回原名李𥙿并降封为德王，昭宗复辟。而后宰相崔胤与宦官韩全诲争权，韩全诲强迫唐昭宗投靠自己的盟友李茂贞，崔胤紧急召唤朱全忠入援，朱全忠于是率军围困凤翔。隔年，凤翔军粮草耗尽，李茂贞只好杀宦官韩全诲等人，与朱全忠和解。朱全忠趁机掌控朝中大权，还屠杀宦官数百人，派兵控制长安。崔胤后悔不已，有意摆脱朱全忠的威胁，暗中召募六军十二卫，被朱全忠在长安的眼线所察觉。904年朱全忠杀崔胤，逼迫唐昭宗迁都洛阳，长安城被毁。同年8月朱全忠弑帝，另立昭宗子李柷为帝，即唐哀帝。隔年，朱全忠杀李𥙿等昭宗年长九子，大肆贬逐朝官，并全部杀死于白马驿，投尸于黄河，史称白马之祸，年末又听信诬告杀害哀帝母何太后。朱全忠本想等一统天下后再篡位，但因征淮南失利，所以提早于907年逼迫唐哀帝禅让，建国后梁，唐朝亡，五代十国时期开始。

疆域

唐初是唐朝武功兴旺的时期。在漠南漠北方面，在唐高祖建立唐朝对突厥做出战略防守退让求和之后开始反击。贞观四年（630年），唐军灭亡东突厥，漠南成为唐势力范围。贞观二十年（646年），又联手铁勒部落一举消灭薛延陀汗国，至此大漠南北广大地区皆为唐的势力范围。唐朝廷在漠北设立安北都护府，在漠南设立单于都护府，建立南至罗伏州（今越南河静）、北括玄阙州（后改名余吾州，今安加拉河地区）、西及安息州（今乌兹别克斯坦布哈拉）、东临哥勿州（今吉林通化）的辽阔疆域。但永淳元年（682年），突厥复国，漠北等地遂为其占，后直到后突厥灭亡为止唐朝的北方边患都很严峻。天宝三载（744年），回纥建国，占据漠南漠北。安史之乱后，边患再起，但唐朝与回纥并没有发生大规模的战争。

在西北，贞观四年，唐朝廷在伊吾七城设立西伊州，开始经营西域。贞观十九年（645年），唐朝廷移安西都护府到龟兹。显庆四年（659年），唐军又灭西突厥，势力及咸海到里海一带。但唐朝廷对葱岭以西地区的统治始终不稳固，乾封二年（662年），阿史那弥射死，阿史那步真统领西突厥十姓，此后葱岭以西一直为唐朝臣属国，尤其是吐火罗。。安史之乱爆发后的三十六年时间内，唐朝陆续失去原安西都护府所辖地区。

在东北，显庆五年（660年），唐军联合新罗灭亡百济。总章元年（668年）八月，唐军与新罗又灭高句丽，并设安东都护府于平壤。但由于当地人民反抗激烈及新罗势力的北进，咸亨元年（670年）安东都护府内迁辽东。开元元年（713年）安东都护府移到辽西。天宝年间（742年—756年）安东都护府废，安史之乱后唐朝逐渐失去对辽东半岛的直接控制。武周圣历元年（698年）其首领大祚荣建立震国，唐朝称之为渤海国；号为「海东盛国」，但与唐朝的关系友好，大部分时间向唐朝称臣。

在青藏高原上，吐蕃日渐兴起，至6世纪末与吐谷浑、苏毗为高原上三大势力。7世纪初，赞普松赞干布即位，统一高原，又征服位于西藏西部的苏毗、阿里地区的羊同和尼婆罗（今尼泊尔）。龙朔三年（663年），吐蕃灭吐谷浑，尽有其地。后又多次占领唐朝的安西四镇，为唐朝最大敌国。安史之乱后，由于大量河陇边兵参与平乱（主要为陇右节度使、河西节度使所部）导致边防空虚，吐蕃趁势进逼，占领原属于唐朝的陇西，黄河以西甘、凉皆不可得，陇山以西为吐蕃占据。唐宣宗大中二年（848年），沙州（甘肃敦煌）人张议潮发动起义，唐人群起响应，很快占领沙州。接著，张议潮又派兵攻取瓜、伊、西、甘、肃、兰、鄯、河、岷、廓（以上地区在今甘肃、新疆、青海境内）等十州。大中五年（851年），张议潮遣其兄张议潭奉沙、瓜等十一州地图入朝，唐宣宗在沙州置归义军，以张议潮为节度使，河陇地区又重新为唐朝廷所控制。890年，河西、陇右又被党项族占据。但终唐之世已完全丧失对于敦煌以西的控制。

在西南云贵高原，天宝七载（748年）南诏建国，与唐时战时和，也削弱唐朝的国力。同时，自汉武帝平南越后的相当长时间内是中国领土的安南（越南北部），唐代统治时先后设立「交州总管府」、「安南都护府」（唐肃宗改名镇南，唐代宗复称安南）、「静海军节度使」等官署，唐末时开始藩镇割据，土豪兴起，至北宋初完全脱离中原王朝而独立。

行政区划

隋朝前期实行州县制，后期实行郡县制。唐又改郡为州，恢复州县二级制。贞观元年，天下大定，又对州县进行省并。唐朝还在州一级的行政区划中设立「府」这一建制。先是开元元年设立京兆府和河南府。今后陆续升新的陪都和皇帝到过的地方为府。同时，唐朝根据山川形便将全国分为关内、河南、河东、河北、山南、陇右、淮南、江南、剑南、岭南十道，是为贞观十道。神龙二年设立十道巡察使、十道存抚使和十道按察使。这些都是监察官，为中央临时派遣，不常置，也无固定治所。开元廿一年又从关内道分立京畿道，从河南道分立都畿道，分山南道为东西两道，分江南道为江南东、江南西和黔中三道，共十五道，是为开元十五道，每道设立固定的监察官员（观察使），有如汉朝的刺史，也设立固定的治所（首府），正式成为十五个监察区，并逐渐向行政区转变。这十五道如下：

• 京畿道，治西京（首都）京兆府（今陕西省西安市）；

• 关内道，治西京（首都）京兆府（今陕西省西安市）；

• 都畿道，治东都（陪都）河南府（今河南省洛阳市）；

• 河南道，治汴州（今河南省开封市）；

• 河东道，治蒲州（今山西省永济市西）；

• 河北道，治魏州（今河北省大名县东北）；

• 山南西道，治梁州（今陕西省汉中市）；

• 山南东道，治襄州（今湖北省襄樊市襄阳区）；

• 淮南道，治扬州（今江苏省扬州市）；

• 江南东道，治苏州（今江苏省苏州市）；

• 江南西道，治洪州（今江西省南昌市）；

• 黔中道，治黔州（今重庆市彭水苗族土家族自治县）；

• 陇右道，治鄯州（今青海省乐都县）；

• 剑南道，治益州（今四川省成都市）；

• 岭南道，治广州（今广东省广州市）。

驻守各道的武将称都督，都督带使持节的称节度使。不带者不称。在安史之乱平定后，唐朝政府增加许多节度使，而节度使管辖的地区称为藩镇。唐政府本企图可借节度使来平定一些叛乱，不料这些节度使拥兵自重。唐朝末期因此形成道（方镇）、州（府）、县三级行政区划。唐末年全国有四五十个镇，除了京兆府和周围几个州以及河南府外，全国其他地方都是藩镇割据的局面。唐德宗时期，河朔一带的藩镇叛乱，占领京师长安，德宗逃到汉中，用了四年的时间才平定，从此之后藩镇之祸日益扩大。宪宗年间虽然平定淮西吴元济势力，各地藩镇继归顺中央，但是却未能除根。宪宗死后藩镇割据的局面就又死灰复燃。最后唐朝终于亡在节度使朱温的手中。唐朝后的五代十国实际上是藩镇之祸的延续，只是一些藩镇已经完全独立而已。唐朝主要的地方官阶如下：

• 州（郡）首领：刺史（太守）；

　• 别驾、长史、司马；

　• 录事、参军事；

　• 六曹：司功、司仓、司户、司兵、司法、司士。

• 县：县令；

　• 县丞、主簿；

　• 县尉、录事、佐史。

• 乡：耆老；

• 里：里正；

• 村：村正；

• 保：保长；

• 邻：邻长。

地方行政方面，唐从隋旧，分州县上下二级区划。州级政区多称「州」，有刺史，少数称「郡」，有郡守。县有县令。县级政区以下按照乡里制设乡设里。百户人家为一里，由里正管辖；四家为一邻，由邻长管辖，五邻为一保，由保长管辖，五保为一里，由里正管辖，五里为一乡，由耆老管辖。一自然村为一村，设村正。在城市聚居区域以坊代替村，设坊正，和村正同级。在边疆、京畿、军事要塞等重要地区设立都督府，由武官都督兼管多个州郡的军事和民政。

政治体制

三省六部制

唐朝沿用隋朝制订的三省六部制，主要机构有三省、六部、一台、五监、九寺。三省即为中书省，门下省，尚书省。此外中央还有掌帝室器物车马的殿中省、掌帝室经史书籍的秘书省、掌宫官内侍的内侍省三个职权较小的省。尚书省为全国最高行政机构，其中枢称「尚书都省」，都省下设立吏、户、礼、兵、刑、工六部，长官本为尚书令，但因唐太宗曾任尚书令，后以左、右仆射为首。中书省是皇帝颁布大政文书的机构，长官为中书令，副手为中书侍郎，下有中书舍人六人，此外右散骑常侍、右谏议大夫等谏官。门下省则是审核大政文书之机构，长官为门下侍中，副手为黄门侍郎（又称门下侍郎），下有给事中四人，此外与中书省相似，有左散骑常侍、左谏议大夫等谏官，也有掌符策印玺的符宝郎、掌起居记录的起居郎等官员。由于尚书权力太大，因此后来设立左右仆射代行大权。左右仆射就是宰相。后来，此二职要加同中书门下的头衔才是宰相。但中书令和门下侍中的名位很高，也不常设。于是，给其他管理加上参议朝政、参议得失、同中书门下三品等头衔就为宰相。宰相平时在政事堂讨论朝政，政事堂会议成为协助皇帝统治的最高决策机构。至玄宗，差遣制成为制度，特点是官位与职位的脱节。官仅代表官位与俸禄的高低，其实际职务完全由皇帝或上官灵活掌握。差遣官官衔中多有「使」字（如转运使、盐铁使、团练使等）。开元末年置翰林学士院，学士参与决奏议疏表，专掌内制，对中书省的权利产生少许威胁。

六部作为尚书省的分支机构，分管各种具体行政事务，按严耕望的研究，六部上承三省所布政令，下传寺监所行方案，主要负责具体事务的规划和监督，而非寺监的具体执行，故而官吏员数远少于寺监。六部有高低之分，吏、兵二部为前行，户、刑二部为中行，礼、工二部为后行。其中吏部主管全国文官升迁，下设吏部、司封、司勋、考功四司；户部掌管全国土地、民众、财赋，下设户部、度支、金部、仓部四司；礼部掌管祭祀，下设礼部、祠部、膳部、主客四司；兵部负责武人选举、地图、车马、兵械等事务，下设兵部、职方、驾部、库部四司。刑部主管律令刑事，下设刑部、都官、比部、司门四司；工部负责山泽、纸笔、屯田、工匠等事务，下设工部、屯田、虞都、水部四司。三省六部制在中国政治史上具有重要地位。

一台就是御史台，其负责监察中央和地方管理，参与大狱的审讯。其长官为御史大夫，副长官是御史中丞。五监为国子监（掌文教学校）；少府监（掌皇家工业生产）；将作监（掌国家工程）；军器监（掌兵器制造）；都水监（掌水利建设）。九寺有太常寺（掌礼仪祭祀）；光禄寺（掌国家宴会）；卫尉寺（掌兵器仪仗）；宗正寺（掌皇室族谱）；太仆寺（掌国家牧政）；大理寺（掌刑狱审判）；鸿胪寺（掌邦交典礼）；司农寺（掌国家仓储）；太府寺（掌国家财政）。此外，唐朝还有三师（太师、太傅、太保），三公（太尉、司徒、司空）等荣誉职务。在盛唐时期还设立过如节度使、观察使、枢密使等临时职务，后来则成为定职。

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科举制度

隋代成立的科举制度在唐初还不完善，朝中的政治仍然被关陇集团所垄断。到了武则天执政后，她大力起用通过科举进入朝廷的庶族地主官僚，贵族政治的局面至此开始衰落。玄宗朝以后，世族官僚不复存在，但是科举士人却进行牛李党争，这场党争持续长达四十年，严重败坏朝政。

唐朝中后期也与东汉中后期和明朝后期成为中国历史上三个宦官时代。早期，宦官并没有什么权力，自唐玄宗时代高力士得宠以来，宦官的地位步步高升，开始直接参与政治。后来伴随著宦官对兵权的掌握，皇帝的废立都掌握在宦官手中。这以「甘露之变」表现得最为突出。而在朱全忠诛灭全部宦官之后，唐朝也很快灭亡。显示宦官已与皇帝形成命运共同体。

法律

唐朝法律分为律、令、格、式四种。律是刑法典；令是指国家对各项制度所做出具体规定（如《户令》）；格是对律令式做出补充修改与对禁令的汇编；式则是各项行政法规（如《水部式》）。《唐律》是根据隋朝《开皇律》经过《武德律》、《贞观律》、《永徽律》三朝修正而来。自唐高祖时代开始制订，在唐太宗时才宣告完成。至唐高宗永徽年间又对唐律进行全面解释，写成《律疏》，与《唐律》合称为《唐律疏议》。后世又称呼为《唐律疏典》。唐律分十二篇，共五百零二条，刑为五刑。唐朝律法将谋反、谋叛等反对朝廷的行为定作不得赦免或赎免的「十恶」大罪，对朝廷的延续起到保障作用。又有一系列相关土地私有权的条例，维护经济基础。贵族、富人、官僚受到一定的不平等的法律保护，在与庶民触犯同样的法律下可减刑或免刑。

外交

由于初唐时代武力比较兴旺，周边国家比较安分且与初唐的关系比较友好。唐高宗在位后期由于军事转向衰弱，关系也时战时和反覆不定。初唐时代在边境上设立六个都护府，分别是：安西（640年设立，主要负责天山以南地区的守备）；安北（647年设立，主要守卫漠北）；单于（650年设立，主要守卫漠南）；安东（668年设立，主要守护辽河以东）；安南（679年设立，主要守卫今越南北部红河三角洲地区）；北庭（701年设立，主要守卫天山以北地区）。

东北地区

靺鞨人源自肃慎，隋唐交际时分为多部，其中有粟末、黑水、白山、伯咄、拂涅、号室、安车骨七部势力较大。698年，在东北边境上，粟末靺鞨人大祚荣建立震国。713年大祚荣接受唐玄宗册封为渤海郡王，设立忽汗州，国名更为渤海国。渤海与唐「车书本一家」，之间一直互动频繁，多名渤海贵族子弟曾到长安学习。726年又在黑水靺鞨之地设黑水都督府。唐朝与新罗关系一直密切。新罗派大量留学生到唐朝学习，其中的崔致远还中了进士。中国的文化也大量传入新罗。两国在边境之间商贸往来非常频繁。660年至668年间，新罗联合唐军先后灭百济与高句丽，统一朝鲜半岛，而后两国往来更加频繁。723年，旅唐新罗僧人慧超从广州渡海前往印度诸国巡礼，路径波斯、大食、突厥等国回到长安，撰写《往五天竺国传》。新罗留唐学生薛聪，整理吏读表记法，方便书写新罗语虚词虚字，促进朝鲜文化发展。唐朝东部沿海城市多有新罗人聚集的「新罗坊」和接待新罗人的「新罗馆」，可见境内新罗人之多。

倭国武周时期改称日本，与唐朝来往密切。孝德天皇推行革新，效法唐制，走向中央集权。引入均田制和租庸调制，落实户籍和记账制度，参考《唐令》写成《大宝令》法典，遵照长安城布局规划平安、平城二京。日本先后派遣了十三次遣唐使，每次使团规模都在百人以上，团中除使臣、水手外，还有留学生、学问僧、医师、音声生、玉生、锻生、铸生、细工生等。著名的来唐日本人有留学生吉备真备和阿倍仲麻吕与僧人空海和圆仁。空海著有《文镜秘府论》与日本的第一部汉字字典《篆隶万象名义》。圆仁寻觅佛法而走遍唐国多个道郡，带回日本大量佛学经文器具。百济艺僧味摩之将在唐学到的荆楚傩舞传至日本，称吴伎乐。日本的文字平假名和片假名也都是分别从中国的草书和楷书部首演变而来。鉴真和尚应日本僧人之邀，曾经六次东渡回日，最后终于成功。他带去了佛经，促进了中国文化向日本的流传以及佛教在日本的兴盛。

契丹源于东胡，自称青牛白马之后。唐初，契丹族部落联盟首领大贺摩会臣服于唐。648年，在羁縻制度下设松漠都督府，以大贺窟哥担任松漠都督兼左领军将军，赐姓李。武则天时期因受到营州都督赵文翽的凌辱而反抗数十年。开元初，松漠都督府得以复置，从此双方睦邻友好百馀年，经济文化交流频繁，始终忠服于唐，直至唐王朝灭亡之后，耶律阿保机才在塞北称汗。

塞北与西北地区

从出土墓志记载，史家推测李渊家族在隋代时，就曾经与东突厥王室阿史那氏通婚，双方关系密切。东突厥常年南下袭击中原，唐初北方割据政权纷纷联笼突厥抗唐，是唐建国初期的一大边害，高祖太宗积极抵御，贞观三年（629年）遣李靖、李绩二将分路征讨，次年降服东突厥，小可汗突利可汗投降，大可汗颉利可汗被俘，东突厥汗国覆亡。大量突厥人迁到长安，太宗将降众左右安置在灵武至幽州地区，设羁縻府管辖。东突厥的灭亡与归顺震动了西突厥与西域各国，一些西域小国纷纷改投唐朝，尊称唐太宗为「天可汗」。西突厥西抵波斯，北并疏勒，控制了丝绸之路。唐于640年攻克高昌城（今新疆吐鲁番东南），设安西都护府。802年平定焉耆，806年平定龟兹，安西都护府迁至龟兹，统管于阗、高昌、焉耆、龟兹四镇。唐高宗显庆二年（657年），苏定方、萧嗣业大败西突厥。西突厥最终在唐军的数次打击下覆亡。西域至此成为唐朝的势力范围，期间唐军与当时的另一大帝国大食国开始交往。不过随著时间转移，天宝十载（751年），唐朝在与大食国阿拔斯王朝的怛罗斯战役中失败，安史之乱后，唐朝势力也基本退出了中亚地区。

东突厥灭亡后，常年臣服突厥的回纥又受到了薛延陀的控制。647年，回纥联合唐击溃薛延陀。唐高宗永淳二年（682年），阿史那骨咄禄在蒙古高原称汗，东突厥复国（史称后突厥），开始南迁。日频严峻的边患一直困扰武则天。武后通过册封、和亲的手段试图同化南迁的突厥人。唐玄宗天宝三载（744年）回纥又与唐联军灭亡后突厥，回纥建国。贞元五年（790年）更名回鹘。回鹘与唐朝关系一直比较良好，但在安史之乱期间曾趁机敲诈勒索唐朝，并再联合唐军攻入洛阳城之后，大肆烧杀掳掠。直到唐文宗开成五年（840年），回鹘被黠戛斯所灭。被迫迁徙，有的南迁至塞内或近塞，有的西迁至甘州（甘州回鹘）、西州（高昌回鹘）、龟兹（龟兹回鹘）、葱岭融入葛逻禄（黑汗国）。黠戛斯汗国在派使朝贡时，李唐皇室曾称与他们同宗。

吐谷浑乃鲜卑支系，南北朝时期西迁至青藏高原东北端。曾被隋炀帝灭亡，隋末战乱年间复国。吐谷浑因夹处于吐蕃和唐两大势力之间，又与吐蕃同居青藏高原上，早年慕容伏允采取亲蕃疏唐的外交政策。唐太宗几进召见未能成功，634年开始派兵西征，次年，大将李靖击败吐谷浑，亲唐的慕容顺继位并对唐称臣。死后，子慕容诺曷钵继位，唐遣送弘化公主和亲。663年吐蕃灭吐谷浑，诺曷钵率众迁至唐安乐州（今宁夏中宁东南）。

吐蕃

在西部与唐对峙的另一大国是吐蕃。吐蕃赞普松赞干布在统一吐蕃后，以强大的武力为由，期间一直向唐朝廷提亲。唐太宗贞观十五年（641年），唐太宗派礼部尚书、江夏王李道宗护送文成公主入藏，松赞干布到柏海迎接。文成公主将蚕等中原特有的事物带入吐蕃，中国的风俗同时也传入吐蕃，一些吐蕃的大臣改穿丝绸服饰。文成公主的嫁妆中还有一批工匠，这些工匠将中原的建筑形式混入吐蕃的建筑形式，大昭寺是其中代表。吐蕃的历法也参考了唐朝的历法。从此之后，唐蕃两国维持了二十年的和平，此后军事争夺日渐剧烈。唐中宗神龙二年（706年），由于吐蕃军事失利，便主动与唐修好，双方使臣在长安会盟。史称神龙会盟。唐中宗应允，将金城公主嫁给吐蕃赞普尺带珠丹，但实际上吐蕃也秣马厉兵，积极备战。714年，吐蕃向唐朝要求重划边界，修改盟书，被唐朝拒绝。两国因此交战，吐蕃兵败，于是又主动求和谈判。

唐玄宗开元廿年（732年），两国再次会盟，两国决定以赤岭为界限。734年正式立碑。不久后发生的安史之乱使得唐朝走向衰落，吐蕃趁机大力扩张势力。唐德宗建中年间其要求与唐确立甥舅之国的关系，而不用臣国之礼。783年，两国在清水会盟，这次会盟基本满足吐蕃的要求，两国改以贺兰山为界。787年，唐蕃又会盟于平凉，吐蕃预备进行劫盟，结果唐朝除了主盟官员外，其馀六十多名官员都被扣押。唐军死五百多人，被俘一千多人，史称平凉劫盟。长庆元年，吐蕃内部分裂，国势衰落，再次请求与唐会盟。后两国在长安西郊进行会盟，以清水会盟确立的边界为界。史称长庆会盟，从此之后，两国关系趋于缓和，但是也被连年战争所困而无力再战。

西南地区

天宝七载（748年），南诏统一了西南的云南，贵州西部，四川最南部和今缅甸北部地区。唐朝与南诏国的关系也是时好时坏。南诏一度长期与吐蕃合作，一同进攻唐朝。但大历十四年（779年）后，吐蕃、南诏联军攻唐失败，南诏军元气大伤，吐蕃又迁怒南诏。两国从此矛盾加深。794年，唐朝与南诏在点苍山会盟，双方建立了良好的关系。但是到820年代后，由于南诏王权旁落，两国又开始爆发战争。829年，南诏倾全国之兵力进攻唐朝，在831年一度攻入成都外城廓，但是最后因为害怕唐朝报复而又修好。之后，两国之间的关系依然是和战相间，直到双双覆灭。

东南亚、南亚和西亚

唐朝与东南亚和南亚的真腊（柬埔寨）、诃陵国（爪哇岛）、室利佛逝（苏门答腊岛）、林邑（越南中部）、骠（缅甸）、狮子国（僧伽罗）、天竺（印度）等国家都有经济文化方面的往来。

玄奘西域求法，从天竺携回佛经六百五十七部，还用梵文翻译了《道德经》赠送天竺，回到长安后将所见所闻写成《大唐西域记》。义净渡海去天竺求法，携回经、律、论约四百部，将西域见闻写成《大唐西域求法高僧传》和《南海寄归内法传》，都是唐代重要的中外关系史著作。唐代流行的婆罗门曲融合天竺中华乐舞为一体。唐朝的佛教建筑也吸收了天竺的风格。

西域地区有康国、安国、曹国、石国、米国、何国、火寻国、戊地国、史国九个全国以昭武为姓的小国，其使节商人频繁来往于唐。

651年大食与唐始建联系，之后通使多达三十六次。唐军在西域多次与大食交涉，在怛罗斯战役中被击败，大食俘虏了不少中国工匠，包括纸匠，造纸术等技术传入大食。唐初，大食国教伊斯兰教入华，大食的伦理学、语法学、天文学、算学、航海学等也随之传到中国。大食幅员广阔，势力遥及大西洋摩洛哥，唐朝的影响通过大食中介商人间接波及西亚、东非、北非等地。

波斯在唐初受到大食侵略，半世纪便被吞并，大食在波斯境内大肆屠杀，许多波斯非伊斯兰教徒、商人、贵族迁居西域塞内，以及东部沿海城市，从事商业。为后期色目人和回族的一个组成部分。由此，波斯的祆教、景教和摩尼教在唐地推广。从波斯又带来了波罗球戏（击鞠），深受唐皇贵族的喜爱。唐末，回回人李珣在《海药本草》中对波斯药物作了系统性介绍。唐朝与中西亚的吐火罗和东罗马帝国之间也有往来。

军事

唐朝统一中国之后，太宗、高宗、武后先后对外用兵，击败北方疆外和西北方疆外的敌国东突厥与西突厥，在西北占领高昌、收其地为州县，重新控制西域，在东北吞灭高句丽和百济，并在白江口战役击败日本援军。到玄宗时，唐朝对外扩张达到顶峰，势力甚至远达中亚与新兴的白衣大食（即伍麦亚王朝）和后来的黑衣大食（即阿拔斯王朝）相遇。但唐朝经安史之乱后一蹶不振，不仅无力保持前期开疆辟土的成果，还要依靠吐蕃、回纥的军事实力以对抗藩镇的割据势力。虽然唐宪宗时获得过对淮西、剑南等地藩镇的军事胜利，但是无法阻止地方割据的大势。唐朝就此衰落下去。京城长安甚至一度被吐蕃攻陷（763年），西南的南诏也曾联合吐蕃占领过成都（831年）。

唐初继承隋代制度实行府兵制，沿袭北周和北齐的府兵制，不过北周府兵是兵民合籍，隋唐的府兵则由当地丁男抽调服役，是兵民合一的徵兵制度。府兵制的基本单位是折冲府。府分三等。上府一千两百人，中府一千人，下府八百人。军府长官为折冲都尉，副职为左右果毅都尉。府兵称卫士或侍官。军府隶属于十二卫和六率。军府最多时有六百三十四个，其中三成以上驻扎在关中，保卫长安。府兵制是以均田制为基础的农兵合一制度。兵士廿一岁入军，六十岁免役，以每户三丁抽一的比例服役。卫士平时在家生产，农闲时由军府训练。其经常性任务是轮流到长安宿卫，叫做番上。战时则应徵作战。服役期间免除自己的租调；但口粮和兵器都要自己负责。

府兵制实际上是士兵和农民的结合，减轻国家的负担。平时为民，战时为兵；兵不识将，将不知兵。战事结束后，士兵回府，将领回朝，降低将领拥兵自重的危险。府兵制的主要缺点在于动员速度慢，用兵时间过长会影响农业，而且免除士兵的税赋对朝廷收入也是一个损失。因此，太宗、高宗及武后时已经采取过临时徵募士兵的办法作为对府兵制的补充。太宗时，朝廷直接管辖全国约六百个军府，一切军事任务，不管是派往护卫戍京师、地方驻扎或出征，均由这支军队执行。然而，为了便于管理，仍然需要设置军政首长，这也就是「节度使」的由来之一。而且当社会经济改善时，人民经常会反抗兵役制度。另外也由于国家太平已久，府兵备而不用，政府对之也日益冷漠，其素质自然大为下降。

到玄宗时，朝廷对人口的掌握能力降低，府兵逃散。天宝年间，玄宗采纳张说的建议，正式以徵兵制和募兵制替代已经废坏的府兵制。为了满足他「领有四夷」的虚荣心，透过招募取得的士兵长期驻扎在边镇以进行对外战争，称为「健儿」。这些雇佣兵与土地没有联系，他们只渴望从边境战争中获得收益。边镇将领通过利益关系和部族关系（很多将领和士兵都来自依附的异族）大大加强对士兵的控制，埋下日后战祸的种子。安史之乱后，唐朝廷在军事上开始失势：内有藩镇割据，外有回纥、吐蕃、南诏的入侵。例如唐朝需要借回纥兵来平定安史之乱，763年吐蕃军曾经占领长安达十五日，南诏军一度攻打成都，并于咸通年间多次进侵安南，863年将之占领，到866年才由唐将高骈收复。唐朝驻守在南诏的士兵不满，导致庞勋之变。后来黄巢流寇叛乱导致朱全忠和沙陀人李克用的争战，各地职业军人陆续占据地，甚至自立政权，直至唐朝灭亡后仍未平息，后来五代十国各政权，大致上是唐代晚期藩镇割据的延续。

唐玄宗时唐朝的势力与来自现在阿拉伯、新兴和信奉伊斯兰教的伍麦亚王朝（白衣大食）和后来的阿拔斯王朝（黑衣大食）的势力在包含昭武九姓国、大勃律、小勃律、吐火罗在内的中亚诸国相遇如开元三年（715年）拔汗那之战；开元五年（717年）拨换城之战；天宝十载（751年）怛罗斯战役；贞元十七年（801年）的渡泸之战。然而在怛罗斯战役中唐军失败，经略中亚的进展遇挫，但是接踵而至的安史之乱和藩镇割据导致华北地区经济萧条，使正重整旗鼓的唐朝大军从此无暇顾及中亚，军队必须退回长安一带平定内乱，致使在往后的一百五十年间吐蕃和回纥势力兴起并占领原属唐朝的西半部领土。

唐朝的众多著名将领中，除了淩烟阁二十四功臣中的将领和郭子仪、李晟及其子李诉、高骈等汉族统帅外，异族将领也占据重要地位：比较重要的有胡汉混血安禄山、突厥人史思明、百济人黑齿常之、高句丽人高仙芝、突厥人阿史那社尔、契丹人李光弼、靺鞨人李怀光、突厥突骑施部人哥舒翰、铁勒部的仆固怀恩、浑瑊和阿跌光进等。

人口

唐朝自武德初至天宝末，其户口与人口比隋朝低，有可能因为法令不行，户口时常有隐漏不报，所以史书记载为虚数，其比实际数据尚少。根据《旧唐书》记载，唐武德元年（618年）有一百八十万户；唐武德七年（624年）有二百一十九万户，唐贞观十三年（639年）三百零四万户，唐太宗贞观二十二年（648年）三百六十万户，唐高宗永徽三年（652年）有三百八十万户，据《通典》卷七《食货》载，到唐玄宗天宝十三载（754年），全国有9,069,154户，52,880,488人，然唐朝户口统计不严多有隐漏，故大部分学者认为唐朝的人口峰值为八千万左右。

当时全国有十五道，秦岭淮河以北有人口3000万。人口最多的是河南、河北两道及淮北地区，这些地区合计人口接近2000万。首都京兆府长安人口达到196万，东都河南府洛阳则有118万人口。隋唐大运河沿岸的交通枢纽城市魏州也有人口110万。河东道人口达372万；关内道有150万；陇右道人口最少，仅53万。南方各道中，江南东道人口最多，有661万。其次为剑南道，有409万，其中成都府人口就有92万。江南西道人口亦有372万，淮南道227万，岭南道116万。人口位居全国之末的是黔中道，仅16万。

安史之乱时，社会生产遭受毁坏，安史之乱结束后根据史载的户口数只是安史之乱前的三分之一，此后的唐朝户口一蹶不振，估计唐朝中期的户口在四五百万户之间。全国人口分布格局因此发生重大变化。五代十国时期，南方九国中除了吴和吴越两国统治者是南方本地人，南汉是早期移民后裔外，其他六国统治者都是唐末北方移民。

经济

唐朝是繁荣强盛的大朝代，经济的发展与规模有长足的发展。隋朝末年因为战乱的关系产生大量无主地，使得均田制可以持续推行，对于稳定农业有很大的帮助。而自孙吴、东晋等六朝发展的江南经济持续提升，已经显出超越黄河流域的趋势。而唐朝掌握南北经济使得经济十分强盛。自隋唐开始，中国经济进入更高的发展阶段。

农业

唐代农业生产工具比前代有所进步，开元年间发明曲辕犁，还出现新的灌溉工具水车和筒车。唐高祖武德七年（624年）统一全国，在之后稳定的一百三十年之中，仅见于记载的重要水利工程总计一百六十多项。其中著名的如玉梁渠、绛岩湖、安徽镜湖、山东窦公渠、山西文水、河北三河、四川彭山、湖南武陵等。总耕地面积达到6.42亿市亩。农业工具的进步以及水利工程的发展促使粮食产量逐年提高。天宝八载（749年），官仓存粮达九千六百万石。长安洛阳米价最低的唐玄宗开元十四年（726年）时，每斗仅十三文，青州、齐州每斗仅五文。五谷的丰盛直接体现在唐朝前期各地户口与垦田数量的增长。

唐朝中期之后，由于黄河中下游地区在安史之乱期间遭受破坏，而淮河以南地区遭受战争的破坏相对小得多，所以淮河以南地区的经济文化发展水平就在之后的发展之中超越黄河中下游地区，唐朝中期淮河以南的土地大量开垦及大修水利，插秧移植水稻，使江淮的粮产量大幅增加，成为全国重要的粮食产区。白糖的制造始于唐贞观二十一年（647年），宋以后长江以南各省种植甘蔗。种植贩运茶叶的发展形成南方经济的一大收入。饮茶的习俗，从南方传到北方，逐渐普及。南方的茶叶，通过大运河和陆路大批运往北方各地，至吐蕃渤海，甚至远及波斯大食。然因赋税不足，国用匮乏，贞元九年（793年）正月，盐铁使张滂奏请在主要产茶州郡及交通要塞，委派盐铁度支巡院设置茶场，由主管官吏分三等定价，每十税一，在唐朝中期以后成为国家的重要收入，因此在历史上成为正式建立税茶之始。

手工业

唐代手工业分官营和私营两种。工部是主管官营手工业的最重要部门，直接管理的机构有少府监、将作监、军器监。少府监主管精致手工艺品；将作监主管土木工程的兴建；军器监负责兵器的建造。监下设署、署下设作坊。此外还有铸钱监和冶监等。官营手工业的产品一般不对外销售，只供皇室和衙门消费。工人则分为工匠、刑徒、官奴婢、官户、杂户等。私营手工业较官营手工业比不发达。唐前期主要手工业有纺织业、陶瓷业和矿冶业。丝、麻为主要纺织对象。河南道的绢，江淮的布都是其中的上等品种。唐朝的丝织品广泛沿用北朝的蜡缬法染色，并先后研发出夹缬、绞缬两种新染色法。织品图案亦受西域胡风影响体现出少许波斯风格。白瓷的精细，唐三彩的数量可以证实当时陶瓷业之发达。唐三彩以黄、绿、白三色为主，表现当时对施釉技术的熟练掌握，虽是随葬物品，但制作精致，取材涉及唐代社会上下的方方面面。金银器制造业汲取西域的一些技术，采用灰吹法达到很高的金银纯度。淮南扬州出产方丈镜、江心镜等上等铜镜。唐朝中期，南方手工业大幅进步，特别是丝织业、造纸业和造船业：民间普及饲养桑蚕，开辟用竹造纸，制造人力脚踏轮船。越州越窑烧制出的秘色瓷是唐朝后期南方陶瓷业的杰出代表。

商业

唐代的城市商品经济处于成长的胚芽时期。长安（雍州、京兆府）、洛阳（洛州、河南府）、魏州、清河郡、齐州历城（济南郡）、睢阳（宋州）、楚州、苏州、涿郡（幽州）、扬州（江都、广陵城）、成都（益州、成都府）、广州、晋阳（并州、太原府）等都是一定地域内的商业中心。唐朝国内交通在当时世界上是十分发达的。陆路交通以长安为中心，道路遍布全国。水路交通则是以洛阳为中心的南北大运河为主。全国共有驿站一千四百六十三所。其中陆驿一千二百九十七所，水驿一百六十六所。商人用于存放商物的邸店因其利润之高，在交通枢纽周边发展开来。唐朝中期开始，由于大批官僚士族与工匠南迁，长江流域商业城市发展快速，国家的经济财政亦仰赖南方的补给，当时有「扬一益二」的说法；而江南最大城市、江南东道治所苏州的繁华程度在中唐时期已逐渐开始超越扬州和洛阳，在全国仅次于长安，成为整个中国南方唯一的、最高等级的州——雄州，有「甲郡标天下」之说，即所谓「当今国用，多出江南。江南诸州，苏最为大」；此外杭州、湖州等地的经济也得到较快发展。而坊市分开的制度在苏州、扬州等商业城市被打破，还出现夜市。

大唐是世界上最早发行纸币的国家，飞钱是世界上最早的纸币。这是世界上最早的纸币雏形，也是近代世界各国学者所公认和认可的最早纸币。唐代大城市中出现柜坊和飞钱。柜枋经营钱物寄付，在柜枋存钱的客户可以凭书贴（类似于支票）寄付钱财。这些都说明商业在唐朝中期的繁荣。唐末，因为黄巢之乱和藩镇战争，户数锐减，社会经济规模再也未能达到开元盛世的水平。

唐代，海外贸易开始兴盛，西元八世纪下半期，从广州经由麻六甲海峡进入印度洋，抵达印度、锡兰、再西入波斯湾、亚丁及红海地区的航路。将通往西方的海道与往新罗及日本的海道连接起来，唐代海外交通所能抵达的范围，已及于新大陆发现之前旧世界的大部分地区，中东商人如犹太人、波斯人以及阿拉伯人纷纷东来。中国沿岸的交州、广州、泉州、明州（今浙江宁波）、扬州等城市，因与蕃舶互动频繁，如雨后春笋般兴盛起来，成为重要的对外贸易港口。为因应海上贸易的新形势，唐代还特别设置「市舶司」，用来管理蕃舶的进出以及徵税事由。海外贸易的数量，自此不断成长。

货币制度

唐武德四年（621年）七月，「废五铢钱，行开元通宝钱，径八分，重二铢四絫，积十文重一两，一千文重六斤四两」，确立国家铸币的法币地位。与此同时，又继承魏晋南北朝时期以绢帛为货币的传统，实行「钱帛兼行」的货币制度——钱即铜钱，帛则是丝织品的总称，包括锦、绣、绫、罗、绢、絁、绮、缣、紬等，实际上是一种以实物货币和金属货币兼而行之的多元的货币制度。

初期，社会经济以自然经济为主，商品经济处于复苏阶段，水准很低。在这种情况下，钱帛兼行的货币制度较好地适应小额商品交易的需要。但随著贞观末期，尤其是唐高宗、武后及唐玄宗时期商品经济的继续发展，钱帛兼行的货币制度逐渐暴露出其落后的一面。首先表现在绢帛作为货币因体大物重、不便分割、难于运输储藏等缺点开始不受市场欢迎，绢帛作为货币的职能趋于衰退，商品交易趋向喜欢使用更高一级的铜钱作仲介，提出增加流通中铜钱投放量的要求，然而唐王朝的官营铸币不能满足这种要求，于是造成流通中铜钱短缺的日益加剧，又进而引发严重的铜钱的私铸和滥铸，造成物价波动、货币流通不稳定以及经济发展的混乱，对国家财政制度造成威胁。

唐政府不断出台严厉打击私铸和滥铸等的法令，并禁断使用恶钱，但是由于铜钱供应量严重短缺，币值不断上升坚挺，私铸和滥铸有暴利可图，所以成效并不理想。

土地与赋税制度

唐朝户籍制度沿袭隋朝，行三等户制。前期的赋税制度，大提承袭隋朝，于624年颁行均田制与租庸调制。均田制是政府授田给人民而徵其租赋，分成公田与私田。身死后公田缴还政府重新分配，剩下可以传后的私田即「永业田」。由于隋末民变产生大量无主土地，所以唐朝前期有充足的土地推行。除了人民之外，政府官员与王公贵族也各有额定的永业田。相较隋朝，唐朝对土地的买卖宽松许多，但仍有严格的限制。租庸调制方面，租是授田男丁每年缴固定的栗或稻，庸是每人每年要为国家服的劳役，调是每丁按照当地特产缴纳绢麻之物，如果不产绢麻可用银两代替，庸和调也可用一定数量的绢免役。这种制度精神在于政府为民置产，其因其产而缴税，即没有重徵累民的问题，又可以防止兼并之风，自然是一种良制。唐朝前半叶，户税逐年上升，唐高宗时约收户税十五万馀贯，至唐玄宗时已高达二百多万贯。

均田制与租庸调制对人民的经济压力不会很大，但是人口流动不能过大，户籍和田籍需要齐全清楚。如果政治败坏，田地过度兼并，闲田过少，人民过度避税，这两个制度就会走向瓦解。武周末年均田制开始形同虚设，政治渐不以往。加上突厥、契丹连年入侵，人民逃避徭役，逃亡者渐增。唐玄宗天宝后期，不课税的户约占全国总户三分之一；不服役的人口约占全国人口六分之五，逃税情况普遍存在。安史之乱后，户口逃匿者增加，租庸调制无法继续实行，所以在唐朝后期出现两税法。唐德宗时期，宰相杨炎制定两税法，并且废除其馀名目的租税。两税法即政府以当地现有的男丁与田地数为依据，划分等级，规定分两次于夏天、秋天纳税。而商人是以货物总值的三十分之一，于所在的州县纳税。其税额，原本用钱为单位，到唐穆宗时以布代替。这样，官僚、贵族、地主和商人都要合理纳税，减轻平民的负担，也增加政府的收入。两税法虽然简化赋税方式，但是授田制度被废除。使得户籍持续陷入混乱，田地兼并的问题也都没有解决。此后中国的赋税制度，一直沿袭两税法的原则，没有再恢复授田制度。

两税法未能阻挡官僚、地主、大商人利用特权手段减税、免税、逃税。唐朝后期随著物价上升，两税制对平民的剥削愈来愈严重。唐朝后期，为解决财政拮据的局面，先后对盐、铁、酒、矿等实行专卖制度，并且课茶税与关税等。结果导致物价飞腾，民怨四起，民间贩卖私盐者不在少数。而盐铁专卖制度也是黄巢之乱的直接原因之一。

文化

学术思想

唐代前期思想继承魏晋南北朝的儒学，例如孔颖达编著的《五经正义》，五经正义中的思想大多由汉晋大儒完成，尤其是郑玄的功劳最大。唐初与明初比较类似，国家在做的是执行前哲的思想。唐朝中期以后，思想上的重大改进发生，韩愈、柳宗元、李翱、刘禹锡等人的思想创见，承前启后。还有，杜甫、白居易等人的思想价值同样不能被忽略，他们不仅仅是诗人。后世所谓经学，严格意义上应该叫做「汉晋唐经学」，后世所谓理学，应该叫做「唐宋明理学」。

韩愈和李翱的作品突出体现唯心主义思想，而柳宗元和刘禹锡更是唐代唯物主义思想的代表。韩愈在他著作《原道》和《原性》中复古崇儒、驳斥佛道，认为僧道不顾及生产，浪费社会财富，僧尼道士应当回乡还俗，焚烧佛经咒文，将寺庙观宇改为民居。他推崇孔子在《论语》中道述的道德观念，以其作为日常伦理的标准。他认为天生人性，并可划分为上中下三品。李翱在《复性书》发展孟子的性善论，认为人之性皆善，但在日常生活中受到喜怒哀乐之情的干扰，使得性无法发挥，要求恢复人的善性克制人的情欲，所谓「复性」。韩愈和李翱的思想是宋代理学的先声」。

柳宗元在他的《天说》、《天对》、《封建论》等哲理文章中指出人命与天命无关，天即自然元气，无法对人世赏功罚过，「功者自功，祸者自祸」，人的遭遇纯属自己创造。刘禹锡发展荀子的天论观点认为宇宙之内竟是物质，天本身同样是物质，虽有客观规律存在，但不能影响人事。他认为唯心理论的产生是因为人世间是非颠倒，人无能胜天，所以宣扬天命理论。

文学与史学

唐朝文学成就以诗歌最为发达。清人所编《全唐诗》共收录两千两百多位诗人的四万八千九百多首诗，这还不是全部。唐初诗人以「初唐四杰」最为著名（王勃、杨炯、卢照邻、骆宾王）。盛唐时期诗人可分为以王维、孟浩然为代表的田园派和岑参、王昌龄为代表的边塞派。其中集大成者为「诗仙」李白和「诗圣」杜甫最为出名。李白的诗，飘逸洒脱，感情澎湃，充满浪漫主义的色彩。而杜甫的诗则更多体现现实主义之情怀。中唐时期最卓越的诗人是白居易，他的诗通俗易懂。此外还有元稹、韩愈、柳宗元、刘禹锡、李贺等。晚唐诗人以李商隐和杜牧最为出众，被称为「小李杜」。后世宋、明、清虽仍有杰出诗人出现，但总体水准都不如唐朝诗人，唐诗成为中国古诗不可逾越的巅峰。

散文方面，六朝以来，文坛盛行骈文这种文体形式，骈文讲究声韵、对偶、典故，辞藻华丽，以四字句和六字句为主。在唐初十分流行，以初唐四杰最为著名，但这种文体到唐朝时显得形式僵化，内容空洞，故到了天宝年间，古文逐渐兴起。古文运动在名义上是要恢复先秦两汉的散文，实际上是要文章更有内容，也就是「文以载道」。韩愈是唐宋八大家之首，他的散文气势磅礴又思想深刻，号称「文起八代之衰」；不过唐代的古文运动在韩柳去世后就逐渐衰退，唐末骈文又再度兴起。

传奇是中国的一种古典小说形式，出现在隋朝，兴盛于唐朝。著名的传奇包括《柳毅传》、《莺莺传》、《南柯太守传》、《枕中记》和《长恨传》等。有的传奇在后代还被改编为戏剧和白话小说。唐朝变文在中国文学史上也有重要地位。所谓变文起初是指佛教僧侣宣传佛教讲唱佛经的底本。最初变文仅限于佛教经典，后来则开始讲唱其他故事，讲唱的人也不限于僧侣。变文对传奇和后世的说唱文学都有很大影响。

唐朝史学开创国家正式开馆修史这一风潮。贞观年间史馆奉诏所修的正史有《晋书》、《梁书》、《陈书》、《北齐书》、《周书》、《隋书》六部。加上史家李延寿私撰的《南史》和《北史》，合计廿四史中有八部出在唐朝，占总数的三分之一。官修史书成书较快、收录详尽，丰富国家的历史档案，但因统治者直接控制修史工作，多少会根据编书时的政治需求出现删减夸大的行为。此外，唐朝还有杜佑扩写《政典》的政书《通典》与刘知几的修史专著《史通》等。杜佑尤其重视财政经济与典章法令制度，认为历史多有现实政治中可以采纳效仿之处。刘知几强调史学家在修史的过程中要有独自创新的评论见解，是为中国历史理论学的开端。

宗教

道教遵奉老子李耳为本教创祖，由于唐朝皇帝乃李姓，因此道教自唐初就被规定居于佛教之上，在唐代上流社会也很流行。唐朝李氏家族认为其为老子之后，唐高祖特别在终南山建太和宫以祭老子，唐高宗追尊老子为太上玄元皇帝，并诏令王公百官研习老子的《道德经》。武则天上奏请令王公百官都学《道德经》，每年依《孝经》、《论语》例考士人。玄宗、代宗亦大力提倡道教，使其在中国的地位达到顶峰。玄宗亲自注解《道德经》，开元二十一年（733年）还在科举考试中增设道举与儒家经典，同列《明经》科举人策试教本，明显有将道家列为国学，颇有与儒家经学齐足并驰的意义。据《新唐书·百官志》记载，开元年间全国有宫观1687所，其中女观550所。当时主要有清经法派和正一派二宗，主要人物有王远知、潘师正、司马承祯、吴筠、张果等。道教之所以受皇室青睐，主要原因是他们多有炼丹，以求长生不老，但其成份可能有毒，故唐朝的许多皇帝亦因信之服用而丧生，例如唐武宗、唐宣宗。

宗教在社会上的地位与影响力，唐时可谓最高。唐朝时期佛教的主要宗派有天台宗、华严宗、法相宗、净土宗和禅宗。唐代佛教的一大转变，由出世转向入世。天台宗奉《法华经》，故又称为法华宗。华严宗奉《华严经》，参与政治较多。净土宗则易于入门。禅宗分为南北二宗，北宗创立者是神秀，他主张渐悟说。南宗创立者是惠能。唐武宗因崇信道教，对佛教采取高压政策，史称会昌毁佛，使得除禅宗南宗等少数宗派外，其他佛教派别从此一蹶不振。佛教的政治地位虽不及道教，但其传播范围之广、经济实力之大、信徒人数之多都远在唐代道教之上。

除了佛道二教外，当时还有伊斯兰教、景教、拜火教与摩尼教等外来宗教，后三者合称「唐代三夷教」，但社会影响力较小。唐代对外来宗教相对宽容，期间多有外来教士传授教法，其中以伊斯兰教和景教为最大。伊斯兰教是唐的敌国大食的国教，称作「大食法」。651年，先知穆罕默德的舅父沙德作为使节两次出使中国，得到高宗接见以及传教的准许，在广州筑建怀圣寺。以后的两个多世纪，伊斯兰教随著西域商人沿途陆海两条丝路入唐，在中国发展壮大。景教通过同一个路线传入中国，因被误认是大秦国（拜占庭帝国）的国教，所以称作「大秦景教」。638年为唐朝所认可并得到政府资助在长安兴建大秦寺，并立下石碑。然而会昌五年（845年）唐武宗大举废佛，因此景教也同时被禁，此后几乎在中国绝迹。

摩尼教为西元242年创建于波斯国沙普尔一世时的摩尼，安史之乱后，回纥势大，摩尼教凭著回纥的庇荫下在中国传教，不过后来受会昌毁佛影响，摩尼教势力遭受沉重打击，不过并未断绝，该教信徒到了政治控制力较弱的南方并渐与其他宗教相结合，在今天的福建建立传教据点，流传到东南浙、闽沿海地区，从此转为民间秘密宗教，也影响日后的明教、弥勒教、白莲教等教派。

教育与入仕制度

中国历史上第一个状元、三元及第，都诞生于唐朝，即武德五年（622年）状元孙伏伽（一说651年的颜康成），建中二年（781年）三元状元崔元翰。唐朝的学校以官办为主。中央设国子监，下辖六学，为国子学、太学、四门学、律学、书学、算学。这些学校主要招收贵族官僚子弟，也招收少量平民子弟。由博士与助教授课，学生称生徒。国子学、太学、四门学传授以九经为主的儒学经典，按生徒家中官位的高低分级招收。三品以上官员的子孙可入国子学，有生徒三百馀人；五品以上官员子孙可进太学，有五百馀生徒；四门学兼收五品以下官员及庶民子孙，生徒多达千人。律学、书学、算学教授实用学问，收纳八、九品官员及庶民子弟，名额限于十馀人。地方设立州学、县学，每校有学生十来人。

学校旨在培养官僚书吏，亦为科举考试服务。名望好的学校保送生徒参加科举考试。科举制度在唐朝进入逐渐完备期，分为常举和制举两种。常举每年举办考试，科目有明经、进士、明法、明书、明算等。此外还有秀才、道举、童子、一史、三史等科目。常举的应考举子有两个来源，一是保送的生徒；二是乡贡选拔出来的自学者。应考举子主要集中在明经和进士两科。明经科主要考试儒家经典，难度较低。进士科主要考诗赋和政论，难度高，但其是主要的高官晋身之阶，即「昔日龌龊不足跨，今朝放荡思无涯。春风得意马蹄疾，一日看尽长安花。」明经科的录取率约为十分之一二，进士科不过百分之一二。时有谚曰：三十老明经，五十少进士。而制举则是临时考试，是为了网罗非常人才，不常举行。因为科举制度比较公平且机会相等，平民得以晋身，所以成为士族末落、门第消融的起点。

科举制度除外，还有门荫和流外入流两种入仕渠道。门荫即晚辈承接前辈职务。流外入流指九品以下的官员通过考验，升职为品官。唐初，以此二途入仕的为主流，后来唐太宗大力推广学府，科举制度逐渐推行。唐代教育的普及，削弱了传统世族的特权，加强了有效的行政管理，扩大了政权的社会基础；尤其是唐朝后期黄巢之乱对门阀士族的沉重打击，在后来的宋代中科举制度真正得到完善。盛唐时期，东亚多国遣送其贵族子弟来唐入学，又将儒家文化传授国外。

艺术

由于吸收了西域特徵与宗教色彩，唐朝艺术与前后朝代都迥然不同。唐初的阎立本、阎立德兄弟擅画人物。吴道子则有「画圣」之称呼，他兼擅人物、山水，并吸收了西域画派的技法，画面富于立体感，有「吴带当风」之说。张萱和周昉以画侍女图为主，他们的著名作品有「捣练图」、「虢国夫人游春图」和「簪花仕女图」等，进一步发展人物画。魏晋南北朝时期，山水风景多为衬托人物主题的配景，而隋唐以来，山水风景成为主题，出现山水画这个重要分支。当时分南、北两派。诗人王维擅长水墨山水画，是南派的代表，苏轼评他「诗中有画，画中有诗」。北派画家李思训善用青绿画金碧山水。又有曹霸、韩干善画马，韩滉善画牛，薛稷善画鹤，边鸾善画孔雀等。

唐朝的壁画事业特别发达。莫高窟与墓室壁画都是传世精品。唐朝的雕刻艺术同样出众。敦煌、龙门、麦积山和炳灵寺石窟都是在唐朝时期步入全盛。龙门石窟的卢舍那大佛和四川乐山大佛都令人赞叹。昭陵六骏、墓葬三彩陶俑都非常精美。其中雕刻家杨惠之被称为塑圣。唐朝时期，书法家辈出。欧阳询、虞世南都是唐初著名书法家。欧阳询的楷书笔力严整，《九成宫醴泉铭》为其名作。虞世南楷书字体柔圆，代表作品有《孔子庙堂碑》、《汝南公主墓志》、《摹兰亭序》等。颜真卿和柳公权是唐朝中后期的著名书法家。颜真卿的楷书用笔肥厚，内含筋骨，劲健洒脱，其代表作有《多宝塔碑》、《颜氏家宝庙碑》、《麻姑仙坛记》等；柳公权的字体劲健，代表作有《玄秘塔碑》，世人称颜柳二人书法为「颜筋柳骨」。张旭和怀素则是草书大家，后者奔放挥洒，深具个人风格及艺术性。

唐朝音乐舞蹈发达。唐太宗平高昌得高昌乐，并入原有的九部乐成为十部乐：燕乐、清商乐、西凉乐、天竺乐、高丽乐、龟兹乐、安国乐、疏勒乐、康国乐、高昌乐。唐高宗以后，十部乐开始衰落，音乐家开始研究新的乐舞，各部乐间的区别逐渐消失，至玄宗朝撤销。玄宗本人就是音乐家，爱好亲自演奏琵琶、羯鼓等多种乐器，擅长作曲，作有《霓裳羽衣曲》、《小破阵乐》等百馀首乐曲；他非常重视雅乐事业，将十部乐分为坐部伎（坐在堂上演奏）和立部伎（立在堂下演奏），曾经亲选坐部伎三百人，号为「皇帝梨园弟子」，李龟年和永新娘子都是名噪一时的歌唱家。唐朝的舞蹈则是以健舞和软舞最为出名。健舞因其节奏明快、雄健豪爽而得名，有《阿辽》、《柘枝》、《拂林》、《大渭州》、《黄獐》、《阿连》、《剑器》、《胡旋》、《胡腾》、《杨柳枝》等多种。软舞即文舞，优美柔婉，节奏舒缓，有《垂手罗》、《回波乐》、《兰陵王》、《春莺啭》、《借席》、《乌夜啼》、《凉州》、《绿腰》、《屈柘枝》、《甘州》等。著名的舞蹈「七德舞」、「上元舞」、「九功舞」合称「三大舞」，流行于宫廷。舞蹈家则有杨玉环、公孙大娘、谢阿蛮等。晋朝永嘉之乱后西域舞乐东传中原，与华夏舞乐融合两个多世纪，至唐代已有很强的胡风特色。多种健舞软舞都采用一种昂首望上，双脚原地急转如旋风的动作，因来源西域，谓之「胡旋」。唐代散乐多含杂技，统称「百戏」，包括浑脱、寻撞、跳丸、吐火、吞刀、筋斗、踢毯等项目。

科技

唐朝科技相对于前代有明显进步。在中国历史上有大量的科技发明，所谓的四大发明之中有两个都诞生于唐朝，即火药和雕版印刷。尊称药王的孙思邈撰写的《千金要方》和补本《千金翼方》，论及药物之本、诊治之诀、针灸之法、养生之术，都是不可多得的医书。《新修本草》是中国最早的一本国家官修药书，成书于唐高宗显庆四年（659年）。天文学家僧一行在世界上首次测量子午线的长度，他还与梁令瓒合作，铜铸制成黄道游仪与水运浑天仪。他在《大衍历》历书中运用二次差内插法并创新近似三次差的内插公式，为王恂等后人奠定基础。初唐数学家王孝通著于武德九年〔626年〕的《缉古算经》在世界上首次系统地创立三次多项式方程，对代数学的发展，有重要意义。李淳风等人修订《算经十书》是唐朝算学的重要成果。

唐初大型地理志书《括地志》共550卷，内容丰富，对后世的地理研究影响深远。贾耽的《海内华夷图》绘有唐近邻的数百国家。此外还有李吉甫著的地方志《元和郡县图志》，杜佑撰写的政书《州郡典》，樊绰介绍云南南诏国的《蛮书》等。唐在隋大兴城的基础上扩展修建首都长安城，东都洛阳规划同样规划严整，规模宏大，是中国历史都城中规划最为严谨端正的两个。长安城在盛唐年间极盛时人口达到80—100万，成为当时世界上最大的城市，也为后世留下城市规划的样板。当时周边国家的首都，如：日本平安京、新罗金城、高句丽平壤和渤海国上京龙泉府都是仿照长安建造。大明皇宫占地广大，现今遗址范围相当于明清紫禁城总面积的三倍之多。

唐朝的木结构建筑规模雄浑，气魄豪迈，建筑流程进一步定型化，提高施工速度。佛塔形式也融合中国与印度的造型，显得千变万化，多种多样。868年，中国《金刚经》的印制是世界上已知最早的雕版印刷。在成都和敦煌都发现过雕版印制的《陀罗尼经咒》。雕版印刷为五代以后书籍的大量发行和普及创造条件。中国的造纸、纺织等技术在751年的怛罗斯战役之中传入大食国，之后在12世纪传入西班牙，到13世纪传入意大利，到14世纪初叶传遍整个欧洲。646年，甘蔗熬糖法也从摩揭陀传入唐朝。

社会

唐代社会，虽然士族的势力被削减，但仍然不是一个平等的社会。《唐律》中也明订，人分为「良」、「贱」两大类，贱民只能与贱民结婚；地主杀害部曲最多求刑一年，而部曲杀害地主必处斩。虽然科举制度实行，但由于世族的生活条件较为优渥，其子弟的文化修养也就跟著较高，不论是否参加科举，进入仕途都不是非常困难；唐代宰相出身世族者也就不在少数。唐代进士选拔，另有一些社会公评的含义，防弊措施并不严格，常有考生向主考官请托，自我吹嘘的情形，但当时人并不视为舞弊，所以录取进士的，有许多是权门子弟；而才气纵横的杜甫，两次考试都落榜。

唐代是「胡风」盛行的时代。所谓「胡风」，特指流行于唐朝社会各阶层的种种并非汉民族原有的社会风习而言，其中主要有当时从北方游牧民族和西域等地传来的风俗，也有由五胡十六国时期南下的游牧民族遗留的社会风俗，诸因素共同作用的结果，形成唐朝胡风盛行的局面。如「胡乐」、「胡服」、「胡食」等在长安城是极其盛行的。西域外族服饰文化对唐朝服饰影响巨大。唐代元和以前，除百官公服外，士女的常服大都随意穿著，故有穿胡服的风气，至玄宗时达于极盛。元和以后，衣服渐尚宽长，此后，唐人渐厌胡风改从汉制，于此可以看出，唐人已颇有复古的倾向。

唐代妇女的地位较高，在服饰中也有体现。贵族及宫廷女子多为半裸胸的宽松罗裙。裙腰系得较高，在腰腋之间。歌女服饰染色醒目绚丽，贵族染色富丽高雅。按领子款式分为圆领、翻领、方领、斜领、直领和鸡心领等。隋文帝开创穿黄龙袍的习礼，唐高祖武德年间令臣民不得僭服黄色，黄袍成为皇室专用之服。

君主年表